





•■^SS^^i^ '^>:^-^V'**:; •: ••'0., • • ■•X 







Class "VF JiS 






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COPYRIGHT DEPOSm 



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Building and Repairing Railways 



BEING A PRACTICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE LOCATION AND PRE- 
LIMINARY SURVEY OF RAILWAYS; CONSTRUCTION WORK; 
STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION AND APPLIANCES; 
MAINTENANCE OF WAY AND TRACK; BRIDGES, 
BUILDINGS, WRECKS; (QUESTIONS OF RE- 
BUILDING AND OTHERWISE INCREAS- 
ING THE FACILITIES OF RAIL- 
WAYS, ETC., ETC. 



FORMING ONE OF THE SERIES OF THE VOLUMES T-OMPRISED IN 
THE REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION OF 

I THE SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS 



BY 



MARSHALL M. KIRKMAN 



EDITION 1906 



NEW YORK AND CHICAGO 
THE WORLD RAILWAY PUBLISHING COMPANY 
1906 ' '■ 




LIBRARY of CONGRESS 
Two CoDJes Received 

JUL 19 1906 



Copyright by 

The World Railw^ay Publishing Compan 

1906 

Also Entered at Stationers' Hall, I^ondon, England 



b 



/ 



All Rights Reserved 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PAGE. 

Introduction 19 

Chapter I. Eailway evolution. The development of the rail- 
way illustrated 21 

Chapter II. The reconnoissanee — the first step in railway 

construction 47 

Chapter III. The preliminary survey — the second step in 

railway construction 58 

Chapter IV. The location — the third step in railway con- 
struction 83 

Chapter V. Construction 90 

Chapter VI. Standards of construction and material 173 

Chapter VII. Constructing track 361 

Chapter VIII. Maintenance of way 386 

Chapter IX. Wrecks 505 

Chapter X. Maintenance of bridges and buildings 519 

Chapter XI. Construction and maintenance accounts 541 

Chapter XII. Maintenance and operation. What cost is 

dependent upon 544 

Chapter XIII. Maintenance. Fixed operating expenses.... 574 
Chapter XIV. Maintenance. Cost of operating affected 

by facilities 588 

Chapter XV. Maintenance. Things that enter into the 

maintenance of a railroad 594 



(in) 



APPENDIXES. 



B. (1) Eelation the various items of track labor bear to 

each other 623 

(2) Eelation that various items of track expenses bear 

to total track expenses 623 

C. (1) Eelation various classes of maintenance bear to 

total cost of maintenance 624 

(2) Eelation of the cost of maintaining the property 

of a road to all other operating expenses 624 

B, Percentage of the total cost of operating due to main- 
tenance of organization and the prevention of the 
destruction of the property from natural causes .... 625 

E. Gauges of railroads that are or have been in use in 

different countries 626 

F. Quantity of material required to lay one mile of rail- 

road track on the basis named 627 

G. Table showing increase in weight of locomotives from 

1880 to 1900 628 

H". Detailed rules governing the location of railways. 629 

Z. Detailed rules governing surveys and construction of rail- 
ways and lists of supplies required in the field 647 

J, Detailed rules governing construction of track of rail- 
ways and various illustrations of rail sections, speci- 
fications and tables, giving details in regard to mate- 
rial used in construction 661 

K, Table setting forth modern authorities on the location, 

construction, track and maintenance of railways .... 693 

L. Bridges and buildings — Eules, tables and data 708 

(V) 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Fid. PAGS. 

A Jessop's Cast Iron Fish Bellied Rail 24 

B The First Rail Chair, A. D. 1797 24 

C LeCann's Tram Rail, A. D. 1801 25 

** Wyatt's Hexagonal Rail, A. D. 1802 25 

«* Tram Rail, A. D. 1803 25 

•• Carlisle's Wrought (Rolled) Iron Rail, A. D. 1811 25 

«« Losh & Stephenson's Edge Rail, A. D. 1816 25 

D Tram Rail with Stone Supports, upon which Trevit- 

hick's first locomotive ran 27 

E Birkenshaw's Wrought Iron Rail, A. D. 1820 28 

*• HettonRail, A. D. 1824 28 

George Stephenson's Fish Belly Rail, A. D. 1829 28 

Rail, Designed by Robert L. Stevens, A. D. 1830 28 

F Standard Track, Camden & Amboy R. R., A. D. 1837.. . 30 
•• Track of Camden & Amboy R. R., Rails Laid on 

Piling Through Marshes, A. D. 1837 30 

*• Stevens' Rail. A. D. 1841 30 

G Stone Stringer and Strap 'Rail, A. D. 1833 31 

Wooden Stringer and Strap Rail, A. D. 1837 31 

H Street Railway Construction 32 

I English Fish Belly Rail, A. D. 1832 34 

" Joint Chair and Wedge, A. D. 1833 35 

'• Stone Block Rail and Joint Tongue, A. D. 1831 35 

J Stevens' Rail, Supported by Cast Iron Chair, A.D. 1837 36 

•• Ring, Joint and Wedge, West Jersey R. R 36 

Wooden Joint Block, A. D. 1860 36 

Double Splice Bar, A. D. 1857 37 

" Erie Rail with Ends Stamped for Adams* Cast Iron 

Bracket Splice, A. D, 1857 37 

" Single Splice Bar, A. D. 1855 37 

•• Double Splice Bar, A. D. 1856 37 

K Plain Splice Bar, A. D. 1870 38 

•* Angle Splice Bar, A. D. 1868 38 

•• Angle Splice Bar, A. D. 1875 38 

*• Angle Splice Bar, A. D. 1879 38 

•• Angle Splice Bar, A. D. 1880 38 

L An Early Frog Pattern , 39 



viii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 

L Frogs, A. D. 1825 39 

*' Staple iron used as makeshift for frog, A. D. 1831 39 

Krog, A. D. 1835 40 

Wood's Kail Frog, A. D. 1859 40 

M Switches in Colliery Railroads, A. D. 1825 41 

N Section of English Permanent Way 41 

O Steel Tie. London & Northwestern Ry., A. D. 1885. . 42 

Metal 'Tot'* Tie. India, A. D. 1889 42 

Metal Track, Queensland, A. D. 1889 42 

Metal Track, Midland Ry., A. D. 1889 42 

** Metal Track, London & Northwestern Ry., A. D. 

1889 42 

«' Metal Track, Elferfield Ry., Germany, A. D. 1889 43 

** Metal Track, Great Central Ry. of Belgium, A. D. 

1889 43 

• Thick Rectangular Rail, A. D. 1838 43 

Latrabe's Compound Rail, A. D. 1841 43 

First Rail Rolled in America, A. D. 1844 44 

92-lb. Rail, A. D. 1848 44 

T Rail, A. D. 1850 44 

Pear Headed Rail, A. D. 1853 44 

Pear Headed Rail, A. D. 1855 45 

Pear Headed Rail, A. D. 1855 45 

Compound Rail, A. D. 1855 45 

Compound Rail, A. D. 1855 45 

Compound Rail, A. D. 1855 45 

Compound Rail, A. D. 1855 45 

Box Rail, A. D. 1855 46 

Barlow's "Saddle Back" Rail, A. D. 1856 46 

Triangular Strinpjer Capped with Iron, A. D. 1857... .. 46 

1.) 

2. }• Aneroid Barometers for Measuring Altitude 49 

3. i 

4. Engineer's Pocket Instruments 50 

g* > Prismatic Compass with Clynometer Attachment — 50, 51 

7. Lock's Hand Level 51 

8. Abney's Hand Level and Clynometer 62 

9. Field Glasses 52 

10. Pedometer 53 

11a, lib, lie. Odometer 54,55 

12. Engineers' Transit with Level and Vertical Arc 59 

13. ** ** ** ** ** Gradienter Attach- 
ment 60 

14. Engineers* Chain 81 

15. Engineers' Improved Tape Chain 61 

16. Steel Tape ... 62 

17. Ranging Rods or Poles 62 

18. Chesterman's Metallic Tape 63 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. ix 

19. Engineers' Scale 63 

20. Protractor 6X 

21. Transparent Protractor wit i R. R. Curves 64 

22. Engineers' Y Level 64 

23. Philadelphia Leveling Rod 65 

24. Leveling Instrument and Gradienter for Topograph- 

ical Work Q^ 

25. Clynometer or Slope Instrument 66 

26. Form of Cross Section Book 93 

26a. Form of Quantity Book 93 

27. Graders' Plow 96 

28. Drag Scraper 96 

29. ** ** with Runners 97 

30. ** ** ** Bottom Plate 97 

31. Back Scraper 97 

32. Two Wheeled Scraper 98 

33. '* ** '' 98 

34. ** ** *' . 99 

36. Side View of Grader, ditcher and wagon loader 99 

37. Rear ** ** *' '* ** ** *' loO 

39. Four Wheeled Scraper 101 

40. '' ** ** 101 

41. Two Wheeled Dump Cart 102 

42. End, Dump Wagon 102 

43. Bottom, ** ** 103 

.44. Iron End, Dump Cart 103 

45. Embankment; built full width at Grade and out to 

the Slope Stakes 105 

46. Right and Left Hand Dump Cars 107 

48. Rotary Dump Car 107 

49. View showing the method of dumping a rotary 

Dump Car 108 

51. Plan and Side and End Elevations of a Steam 

Shovel 109 

54. Steam Shovel Car 110 

55. Hard Pan Plow 110 

56. Showing the Slopes for an Earth Cut Ill 

61. Example of Cristina Method of Tunneling 114 

62. Example of American System 116 

63. Air Compressor 117 

65. Rock Drills for Tunnel Work 117 

68 Ventilation of Mt. Cenis Tunnel 120 

69-70. Retaining Walls 121 

71. Showing How a Cut can be the Full Width at Grade and 

the Material Taken Out at Slope Stakes, and yet all 
the Material will not be Excavaled 122 

72. Steam Pile Driver 125 

72a. Form of Force Report 130 

726. Form of Estimate Book 131 



X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 

73. View Overhaul 133 

74. '' '' 133 

75. Track Laying or Iron Car 135 

76. Holman 's Track Laying Machine 138 

77. Harris' '' '' '' 140 

78. Terminal Coaling Station 156 

78a. Elevation of Combined Coal, Ash and Sand Bins 157 

78b. Transverse Section Coaling Station 158 

79. Water Tank 159 

80 Water Tank 160 

80a. Gasoline Water Pump 161 

80b. Four Post Pneumatic Gate 162 

80c. Pneumatic Folding Fence Gate 163 

80d. Iron Signs 164 

80e. Pratt *' Split'' Turn Table with Motor Attachment 165 

80f. Sheffield Section Gasoline Motor Car 166 

80g. Bonzano Eail Joint, Side View 167 

80h. One Hundred Per Cent Splice Bar 167 

80i. Sem.aphore Stand 168 

80j. The Buda Oscillating Surface Cattle Guard 169 

80k. American Guard Eail Fastener 170 

801. The Graham Combined Guard Eail and Frog Brace. ... 171 

80m. Guard Eail Clamp 171 

80n. Tie Plug 172 

81. Earth Ballast — Galveston, Houston & Henderson Ey. . . . 181 

82. Gravel '' '' '' " '' 182 

83. Earth '' Illinois Central Eailroad 182 

84. Crushed Stone, 2 inches Diameter, on Quarry Spauls 

4 to 6 inches Diameter— N. Y. C. & H. E. E. E 182 

85 Ballast, Crushed Stone 2i^ inches Diameter, Penn. 

E. E 183 

86. Eock Cut Stone Ballast 2% inches Diameter, C. & P. 

D. Branch of Penn. E. E 183 

87. Gravel Ballast, A. T. & S. F. Eailway 184 

88. '' '' C. & N. W. '' 184 

89. Burnt Clay Ballast, C. B. & Q. E. E 185 

90. Hoosac Tunnel, Finished Masonry in Soft Ground 185 

91. Section of Tunnel at Port Perry, P. V. & C. Ey 186 

92. ** *' ** on the Insbruck Bozen Line, Aus- 

tria ' 187 

93. '* '* ** used by Government Eailway of East 

India 188 

94. Section of Iron Tunnel under the St. Clair Eiver, used 

by the Grand Trunk Ey 189 

95. Morrell Metal Tie 220 

96. Metal Tie used on the N. Y. C. & H. E. E. E 221 

97. Wolhaupter Tie Plate with Eib to Eesist the Lateral 

Motion of the Eail 223 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xi 

98. Goldie Claw Tie Plate with Lug to Prevent the Lateral 

Movement of the Kail 223 

99. The C. A. C. Tie Plate 224 

100. The Servis Tie Plate 224 

101. Wolhaupter Arch Girder Tie Plate 224 

102. Track Spikes 241 

103. Angle Bars used on a 75 pound Kail of American 

Society of Civil Engineers' Standard 243 

104. Continuous Kail Joint 243 

105. Weber Kail Joint 244 

106. Truss '' '' 244 

107. Common Sense Kail Joint 244 

108. C. & N. W. Kj. Joint Base Plate used to give Lateral 

Stiffness to the Kail 245 

109. Track Bolts 248 

110. Styles of ^^ Verona^' Nut Locks 248 

111. The Elastic Self -Locking Steel Nut ^^ National" 249 

112. Joint Spring Nut Lock 249 

113. Shows how a Kail Brace will fail to support the Kail 

where it cuts into the Tie or the Kail Brace is not 
properly designed 250 

114. Forged Steel Kail Braces 250 

115. Stub Switch Showing Head Blocks and Ground Throw 

for Moving Switch Kails 251 

116. Split Switch with Pony Switch Stand Suitable for 

Yards , 252 

120. Kigid Filled Frog 253 

121. " Chuck Filled Frog 254 

122. '' Steel Clamp Frog 254 

123. Kigid Plate Frog 255 

124. Spring Kail Frog with Anchor Block 255 

125. Eureka Spring Kail Frog 256 

126. Movable Point Crossing 257 

129. Crossing Frogs, Angle 60° to 90° 258 

130. '' '' '' 45° to 60° 258 

131. '* '* with Extra Heavy Angle Irons.. 259 

132. '' ''for Steam and Street Kailroads 260 

133. Jump Crossing Frogs for Steam and Street Kailroads. . 260 

134. Kamapo Safety Switch Stand as it appears when Half 

Thrown by Hand 261 

135. Kamapo Safety Switch Stand as it appears when Half 

Thrown by Wheels Passing Through the Switch .... 262 

136. Three Throw Switch Stand 263 

137. Automatic Parallel Ground Throw Switch Stand 264 

138. Low Pony Switch Stand 264 

139. '' '' '' '' with Safety Bottom Cap 264 

140. Ground Throw Switch Stand with Weighted Lever 265 



xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 

141. Designs for Targets or Signals to be used on Switch 

Stands 265 

142. Target Tripod for Switch Stands 266 

143. Haley Semi-Steel Bumping Post 267 

145. Ellis Bumping Post . 268 

146. Through Plate Girder Bridge 269 

147. Perspective View of Through Plate Girder Bridge 269 

148. Through Plate Truss 269 

149. Deck Pratt Truss 271 

150. Through Warren Truss 271 

151. Deck Warren Truss 271 

152. Whipple Truss or Double Intersection Pratt 273 

153. Modified Form of Warren Truss 273 

154. Single Lattice Girder — Modified Form of Warren 

Truss 273 

155. Double Lattice Girder — Modified Form of Warren 

Truss 275 

156. Deck Baltimore Truss— Modified Form of Pratt Truss. . 275 

157. Through Baltimore Truss — Modified Form of Pratt 

Truss 275 

158. Long Span Baltimore Truss — Modified Form of Warren 

Truss 277 

159. Long Span Baltimore Truss — also known as the Arched 

Truss, the Bow String Truss, and the Camelback 
Truss 277 

160. Another Modification of the Warren Truss for Long 

Spans 279 

161. Duluth—Superior Bridge 279 

162. Bob Tailed Draw Bridge, Modified Form of Warren 

Truss, Short Span Counter-Weighted. 281 

163. Scherzer Eolling Lift Bridge 281 

165. Cantilever Bridge 281 

166. Pile Trestle Bridge 282 

167. Framed Trestle 282 

168. Stone Arched Culvert 283 

169. Cast Iron Pipe Culvert without Wing Walls 283 

170. '' '' "• '' with '' '' 284 

171. Open Culvert 284 

172. Pump for a Deep Well 286 

173. Common Form of Setting up a Pumping Plant for a 

Water Station 287 

174. Combined Gasoline Engine and Pump 288 

175. Design for Railroad Pump House and Machinery, 

using a Gasoline Engine 289 

176. Water Tank supported by Wooden Posts or Bents 290 

179. Automatic Stand Pipe or Water Column 291 

180. Track Tank 292 

181. Plan of a Coaling Station where Buckets are used.... 294 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xiii 

182. Transverse Section of a Clinton Coaling Station 295 

183. Cast Iron Turntable made by William Sellers & Co 297 

184. Wrought Iron Turntable made by the King Iron Bridge 

Co 298 

185. A Turntable Center used by William Sellers & Co ..... . 298 

186. A Special Sixteen Eoller Center for Turntables 299 

187. Small Frame Depot with Living Eooms on Second 

Floor 301 

188. Small Frame Depot 302 

189. Frame Depot for a Moderate Sized Town 303 

190. Outbuildings for Small Depots 304 

191. Plan of a Brick Passenger Depot 306 

192. ** '' Stock Yard 307 

193. * ^ * ' Koundhouse and Shops 308 

194. *' '' Brick Storehouse for Supplies 309 

195. '' '' Storehouse for Sand 310 

196. Elevation of a Bent of an Air Hoist Ash Pit 311 

198. Train Signal operated by the Station Agent 314 

199. Automatic Electric Signal 314 

200. Lever operated by the Engine to open and close the 

Electric Circuit 315 

201. Block Signal, Operated by the Telegraph Operator.... 315 

202. Switch Lamp, Upper Draught 316 

203. Switch Lamp, Lower Draught 316 

204. Semaphore Signal Lamp, Upper Draught 317 

205. Barbed Wire Fence 318 

206. Page Woven Wire Fence 318 

207. Jones ' Wire Fence 318 

208. Flexible Clamp, used in making Jones ' Wire Fence .... 319 

209. Cyclone Wire Fence and the Machine for Making it ... . 319 

210. Terra Cotta Base Iron Posts for Fences and Signs. .. . 320 

211. Cattle Guard 321 

212. Climax Stock Guard 321 

213. Sheffield Cattle Guard 321 

214. Eailroad Track Scales 322 

215. Circular Arch 324 

215a. Segmental Arch 325 

215b. A Perspective View of a Semi-circular Arch 326 

215c. Styles of Wing Walls 330 

215d. Gravity Concrete Mixer, Using Baffle Pins Only 340 

215e. Gravity Concrete Mixer, Using Baffle Plates Only 341 

215f. Gravity Concrete Mixer, Using both Baffle Pins and 

Plates as made by the Contractors ' Plant Co 341 

215g. The Method of Using a Gravity Concrete IMixer 342 

215h. Drake Concrete Mixer with Automatic Feeding Attach- 
ment 343 



xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

215i. Drake Mixer on a Car, with Conveyor to Deliver the 
Concrete on the Wall, also Showing the Method of 

Delivering the Material to the Mixer 344 

215j. The Cockburn Barrow and Machine Co. 's Concrete 

Mixer 345 

215k. Kansome's Continuous Concrete Mixer 346 

2151. Kansome's Concrete Mixer 347 

215m. Eansome 's Concrete Mixer, as Used at East End of 

Bridge 3, Allentown Terminal Ey 348 

215n. Cubical Concrete Mixer 349 

215o. The Smith Concrete Mixer 350 

215p. Melan Arch Bridge Over Falls Creek, Indianapolis, Ind. 352 
215q. Corrugated Steel Bars Made by the St. Louis Ex- 
panded Metal Co 353 

215r. Twisted Steel Bars Made by Eansome Concrete Ma- 
chinery Co 353 

215s. Thacher Patent Bars, Manufactured by the Concrete 

Steel Engineering Co 353 

215t. Concrete Arch Eods 354 

215u. Concrete Arch Eods 355 

215v. Big Muddy Bridge 357 

215w. Big Muddy Bridge 358 

215x. Big Muddy Bridge 360 

216. Plan of Tracks for a Small Country Town 364 

217. Plan of Tracks for a Junction of Two Eailway Systems 364 

218. Plan of Tracks for a Junction of a Branch with the 

Main Line 365 

219. Plan of Tracks and Buildings for a Yard where Loco- 

motives are changed and where the grades alter, thus 
causing a change in the Tonnage of Trains each side 
of the Yard 365 

220. Combination Slip Switch Crossing, with Adjustable Tie 

Bars and Eigid Center Progs, Operated from a Sin- 
gle Switch Stand with Eocker Shaft Connection.... 366 

221. View of a Three Throw Split Switch 367 

222. Arrangement of the Switch Points for a Three Throw 

Split Switch 368 

223. Single Throw Split Switch No. 6; Eigid Frog 6 Feet 

Long 369 

224. Single Throw Split Switch No. 7; Eigid Frog 7 F'^et 

Long 369 

225. Single Throw Split Switch No. 7; Eigid Frog 12 Feet 

Long 369 

226. Single Throw Split Switch No. 8; Eigid Frog 8 Feet 

Long 371 

227. Single Throw Split Switch No. 9; Eigid Frog 9 Feet 

Long 371 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATT0N8. xv 



228. Single Throw Split Switch No. 9; Eigid Frog 12 Feet 

Long 371 

229. Single Throw Split Switch No. 10; Eigid Frog 10 Feet 

Long 373 

230. Single Throw Split Switch No. 11; Eigid Frog 11 Feet 

Long 373 

231. Single Throw Split Switch No. 7; Spring Eail Frog 15 

Feet Long 373 

232. Single Throw Split Switch No. 8%; Spring Eail Frog 

15 Feet Long 374 

233. Single Throw Split Switch No. 9; Spring Eail Frog 15 

Feet Long 374 

234. Single Throw Split Switch No. 10; Spring Eail Frog 15 

Feet Long 374 

235. Three Throw Split Switch with No. 6 Eigid Frog 6 

Feet Long 375 

236. Three Throw Split Switch with No. 7 Eigid Frog 7 

Feet Long 375 

237. Three Throw Split Switch with No. 7 Eigid Frog 12 

Feet Long 375 

238. Three Throw Split Switch with No. 8 Eigid Frog 8 

Feet Long 376 

239. Three Throw Split Switch with No. 9 Eigid Frog 9 

Feet Long 376 

240. Three Throw Split Switch with No. 9 Eigid Frog 12 

Feet Long 376 

241. Three Throw Split Switch with No. 10 Eigid Frog 10 

Feet Long 377 

242. Three Throw Split Switch with No. 11 Eigid Frog 11 

Feet Long 377 

243. Plan of a Stub Switch 377 

244. Plan illustrating the use of a Cross-Over or Switch 

connecting the Two Main Line Tracks of a Double 
Track Eoad 378 

245. Plan of a Cross-Over 378 

246. Derailing Switch used to prevent a collision between 

a Train on the Main Line and Cars running off a 
Side Track onto the Main Line 379 

247. Sand Track; used to cheek the movement of Cars on 

a grade or when propelled by a high wind from 
running off a Siding to the Main Line Track 379 

248. Derail Switch Point used in connection with Inter- 

locking System of Guard Crossings 379 

249. Standard Guard Eail with Division Blocks and Bolts 

and Eail Braces 381 

250. Guard Eail with the Hook Guard Eail Clamp 382 

251. Guard Eail with the Sampson Adjustable Guard Eail 

Clamp 382 



xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, 

252. Crossing Frogs used where two tracks cross at an 

acute angle 383 

253. Combination Slip Switch and Movable Center Points 

Switches and Movable Center Points operated by 
one Switch Stand 383 

258. Sectional Perspective View of Gates Stone Crusher. .. . 398 

259. Gates Eevolving Screen for Screening Crushed Stone. . 399 

260. Arrangement of Stone Crusher, Elevator, Screen and 

Storage Bins for a Eailroad Ballast Plant 400 

262. Jenne Track Jack for heavy Ballasting, Surfacing and 

General Track Repairs 401 

263. Trip Jack 401 

264. Adze 404 

265. Chopping Axe 404 

266. Augur for boring holes in the ground for Fence Posts. 404 

267. Broom for removing snow from Switches, etc 404 

268. Brush Hook for cutting down small Saplings 405 

269. Ballast or Napping Hammer 405 

270. Ballast Fork 405 

271. Brace and Bit 405 

272. Hand Car for Section Gang 406 

273. Push Car, with Removable Side and End Boards 407 

274. Track Chisel, for cutting Rails, etc 408 

275. Claw Bars 408 

276. Track Drill 408 

277. Self -Feeding Rail Drill 409 

278. Hand File, for smoothing the ends of Rails 409 

279. Grindstone, Mounted and Treadle 410 

280. Grub Hoe, Mattock, Pick Mattock 410 

281. Hatchets and Hand Axe 410 

282. Hand Hammer 411 

283. Lantern 411 

284. Lining Bars, for Throwing Track 411 

285. Oil Can for Car Oil 411 

286. Spring Oiler for oiling Hand Push Cars 411 

287. Track or Rail Punch 412 

288. Railroad Padlock used with a chain to Lock Hand or 

Push Cars by passing through the two Wheels on 
the same side of the Car and fastening the Chain 
by passing the Padlock hasp through two Links of 
the Chain 412 

289. Pick for loosening Earth, Clay or Hard Gravel . 412 

290. Tamping Pick 412 

291. Rail Tongs 413 

292. Rail Fork 413 

293. Hand Saw 413 

294. Cross Cut Saw 413 

295. Scythes (a) Light; {h) Heavy 413 



< 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xvii 



296. Scythe Snaths 413 

297. Spirit Level 414 

298. Spike Pullers 414 

299. Spike Maul 415 

300. Stone Sledge Hammers 415 

301. Eailroad Shovel for Tamping, etc 415 

302. Scoop Shovel 415 

303. Long Handled Shovel 415 

304. Track Lever or Lifting Bar 415 

305. Huntington 's Track Gauge 415 

306. McHenry 's Track Gauge 416 

307. (a) Common Track Level; (Z?) Duplex Track Level. . . . 416 
(c) McHenry 's Involute Track Level 416 

308. Tamping Bar 417 

309. Torpedo 417 

310. Eailroad Tool Chest 417 

311. Track Wrench 418 

312. Monkey Wrench 418 

313. Eailroad Barrows 418 

315. Four Wheel Eclipse Light Weight Car 419 

316. Velocipede Car 420 

318. The Ware Tie Plate Surf acer and Gauge 429 

319. American Eailway Ditching Machine 434 

320. Clarke Jeffrey Split Switch 435 

321. Transit Split Switch 437 

322. Channel Split Switch 438 

323. Lorenz Safety Split Switch 439 

324. Views of Different Connecting Eods . 439 

325. Views of Different Kinds of Bridle Eods 440 

326. Eamapo Yoked Frog 440 

327. Strom Clamp or Yoked Frog 441 

328. Frog with Wood Foot Guard 442 

329. Frog with Iron Foot Guards 442 

330. Eight Hand Turn Out 443 

331. Left Hand Turn Out 443 

332. Eight Hand Frog 444 

'333. To take the Angle of a Frog 444 

334. Head Blocks or Head Chairs for Stub Switches 445 

335. Bryant Portable Eail Saw 445 

336. Eail Bender and Straightener 446 

337. '' '' " '' with Horse Power At- 

tachment 447 

338. Plan and Elevation of a joint to take up expansion 

and contraction of Eails 451 

339. Expansion Joint for a Bridge or difficult pieces of 

Track 451 

342. Plan and Section show-ing Piping necessary to fit a 

Flat Car to sprinkle Track with Oil 452 



xviii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, 

344. Rotary Snow Plow 475 

345. Inspection Hand Car 496 

348. Double or Four Wheeled Motor Car for Inspection 

Purposes 497 

349. 35 Ton Steam Wrecking Crane 507 

350. 15 Ton Double Mast Hand Wrecking Crane 507 

351. Automatic Lowering Jack 508 

353. Dudgeon 's Hydraulic Jack. 509 

354. Tilden Wrecking Frog 510 

355. Palmerton Wrecking Frog 510 

356. Elliot Car Eeplacers or Wrecking Frog 511 

357. Device for Splicing a Broken Chain 514 

358. Ship Augur Bits, used by Bridge Carpenters 521 

359. Boring Machine used where Heavy Timbers are 

Framed 521 

360. Crow Bar 522 

361. (a) Pinch Bar without a Heel; (&) Pinch Bar with a 

Heel 522 

362. Shackel Bar used for Drawing Drift Bolts 522 

363. (a) Single Block; (&) Double Block; (c) Triple Block 522 

364. -Bridge Gang Hand Car 523 

365. Heavy Push Car for use of Bridge Crew 523 

366. Cant Hook 524 

367. Pevey 524 

368. Timber Grapples 524 

369. Hoisting Crabs or Winches, (a) Single Purchase; (fe) 

Double Purchase 524 

370. Timber Trucks or Dollys 525 

371. Files, (a) Taper File; (5) Double End File 525 

372. House Raising Jack Screws 525 

373. Bilge Pumps, (a) Bottom Suction; (fe) Side Suction.. 526 

377. Steel Socket Bridge Wrench 526 

378. Wheel Wrench 527 

1. Curves showing Horse-power of Standard Locomotives; 

Northern Pacific Ry App. H 639 

2. Diagram showing Lengths of Velocity Grades. . .App. H 642 

3. Diagram of Train Resistance in Pounds per ton. App. H 644 

379. Rail Section App. J 673 

380. Pennsylvania R. R. Standard Rail Section and Stand- 

ard Joint App. J 674 

381. New York Central & Hudson River R. R. Standard 

Rail Section App. J 675 

382. Philadelphia &, Reading R. R. Rail Section App. J 676 

383. Argentine Gt. Western Ry. (South America) Rail 

Section App. J 677 

384. Mexican Ry. Co., Ltd., Standard Rail Section. .App. J 678 

385. East India Ry. Co. India Standard Rail Section and 

Standard Joint -A.pp. J 679 



INTRODUCTION. 

Many books have been written on the subject 
of Railway Construction by different men; many 
more will be written hereafter, and this without 
exhausting the subject. It is too great and the 
problems too multiplex to be exhausted. Each 
writer, however, will throw new and needed light 
on the subject and what each says will therefore 
be useful to owner and operator alike. 

For the Construction and Maintenance of rail- 
ways will never cease to interest or excite con- 
troversy. The subject is one of the greatest 
connected with the operation of railroads and is 
rendered more complex because of the dissimil- 
arity of conditions under which they are built 
and worked. The more light, therefore, that can 
be thrown on the subject the more advantageous 
to those interested. 

Because of this I do not feel that excuse is 
necessary for offering this book, apart from what 
I have written on the subject in other volumes 
of ''The Science of Railways." This added mat- 
ter will be of interest to all who seek increased 
knowledge and usefulness from the observation 
and experience of others. What is written here 
does not represent my particular experience, bat 
the experience and wisdom of others as well, who 
have studied the subject. 

(19) 



20 INTRODUCTION, 

This volume, like others that I have WTitten, 
it is unnecessary to say, is intended for the use 
of students and practical men, such as builders, 
roadmasters, section foremen and others who have 
to deal at first hand with the material things that 
go to make up a railroad and its accessories. 

M. M. KiRKMAN. 



CHAPTER I. 

RAILWAY EVOLUTION. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE 
RAILWAY ILLUSTRATED. 

In depicting railways, an account of the con- 
ditions which lead up to them is interesting, not 
only in itself, but as affording a better under- 
standing of the subject. The origin and growth 
of property go hand in hand with the birth and 
development of man. When we describe the 
condition of one we describe the condition of the 
other. The two are coexistent. Thus the busi- 
ness principles which we observe to-day were in 
the main established by the ancients, who were 
commercially inclined as we are, many hundreds 
of years ago. In the same way they originated 
in the main our utensils and methods. We have 
simply developed their primary thoughts. 

In legal phraseology there are three kinds of 
property — real, personal and mixed. Railway 
property partakes of all these characteristics. 
The privileges it enjoys are such as are accorded 
it under the limited knowledge we have of its 
uses and needs. Its rights are exceptional because 
of its special duties and responsibilities. Its 
limitations are such as attach to common car- 
riers. It represents a new departure in industrial 
effort; a progressive step greatly stimulative of 

<21) 



22 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

man's efforts. In other respects it presents no 
distinguishing features. It furnishes, however, 
another instance, if one were wanting, of the 
sympathetic tie that connects man's intellectual 
growth with that which he so greatly prizes, 
namely, material wealth. 

The primary purpose of the permanent way 
of a railroad was to furnish a surface that should 
be at once hard, smooth and unchanging for 
wheels to run upon. 

Railways had their origin in Great Britain in 
the tramways laid in the mining districts for con- 
veying coal to the sea from the mines near New- 
castle-on-Tyne during the seventeenth century. 
The rails were formed of scantlings of oak, 
straight and parallel to each other, connected by 
cross timbers also of oak and pinned together, 
with oak treenails; on these, carts made with 
four rollers fitting the rails traveled, the carriage 
being so easy that one horse is said to have been 
able to draw four or five chaldrons of coal. The 
benefits derived from this manner of transport- 
ing coal suggested to the thinking man the em- 
ployment of similar means for facilitating the 
conveyance of passengers and general merchan- 
dise. 

A road graveled between the rails was at first 
provided as a foothold for the horses which drew 
the cars. The wheels were kept on the rails by 
guides, attached either to the wheels or to the 
rails. As stated, the earliest railroads were con- 
structed wholly of wood. 

In comparing the first railroads with the com- 



BAILWAY EVOLUTION. 23 

mon turnpike road, an early writer says: ''A 
saving is made of seven-eighths of the power, 
one horse on a railroad producing as much effect 
as eight horses on a turnpike road. In the effect 
produced by a given power the railroad is about 
a mean between the turnpike road and a canal, 
when the rate is about three miles an hour; but 
when greater speed is desirable the railroad may 
equal the canal in effect and even surpass it." 

Rails were first cast; afterward, early in the 
nineteenth century, they were rolled. In 1767 
the first iron rail w^as cast at Colebrookdale, Eng- 
land. This was a great stride forward. It was 
three feet long, four inches wide at the top, and 
three inches high. This progressive step pre- 
pared the way for the locomotive when it should 
be evolved. However, the rail thus cast proved 
to be too light, but the difficulty was overcome 
by making the carts or wagons smaller and coup- 
ling a number of them together instead of having 
one big vehicle. Thus the train came into being. 
Shortly afterward it was found possible to cast 
a rail six feet long; in 1815 it had grown to fif- 
teen feet; still later to thirty feet. 

In 1789 William Jessop first introduced a rail 
with a smooth, level top, substituting a wheel 
with a flange for the old-fashioned form. This 
simple, yet ingenious, device at once revolution- 
ized previous practices. Before, a flange or 
something of the kind had formed a part of the 
rail in order to keep the wheel on the track. 
This not only added to the cost of the rail, but 
rendered it less strong and more easily worn out. 



24 



BUILDING AND BE P AIMING RAILWAYS. 



The flanged wheel cleared the sky. In 1797 Jes- 
sop also contributed to the development of rail- 
roads by inventing the iron chair, which he in- 
serted between the rail alid the tie. Rails at 
this time were very light, and the load and speed 
were made to correspond. 




Jessop's Cast Iron Fish-bellied Rail, A. D. 1789. -[Note: The attention of 
the reader is particularly called to the fact that in the accompanying illustra- 
tions not only the form of the rail is shown, hut also the fastenings, splice 
bars, chairs, ties and other details of interest connected with the track.] 



Fig. a. 






The First Rail Chair. Newcastle-on-Tyne, A. D. 1797. 

Fig. B. 



Figures A and B illustrate the Jessop rail and 
iron chair. Some of the various styles of rails 
used for tram roads are illustrated by Fig. C. 

With the introduction of the locomotive to 
take the place of the horse commenced the de- 
velopment of the present railroad. This was 
about the year 1830. 

George Stephenson, while he did not invent 
the first successful locomotive, is, nevertheless, 




BAILWAT EVOLUTION. 




25 




Top v/tw. Sfcrio/i. H seaTMRo 

LieCann's Tram Rail, requiring neither bolts nor spikes. Wales, A. D. 1801. 




Wyatt's Hexagonal Rail, North Wales, A. D. 1802. 




Tram Rail, Surrey Railway, A. D. 1803. 




Carlisle's Wrought (rolled) Iron Rail, A. D. 1811. 




Lcsh & Stephenson's Edge Rail, Stockton & Darlington Railroad, A. D. 1810. 

Fig. C. 

quite generally accredited with being the father 
of this machine and, therefore, of the railway 
system. He did much to perfect the locomotive. 
As I have had occasion to remark elsewhere, his 



26 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 

prominence in connection with the opening of 
the Liverpool & Manchester railway, where for 
the first time the attention of the world was 
generally drawn to the railroad question, concen- 
trated attention upon him, so that it was believed, 
though erroneously, that he invented the loco- 
motive and operated the first successful one. The 
idea of the locomotive originated with Trevithick, 
in 1803, but it was not a financial success. Af- 
terward, John Blenkinsop accomplished what 
Trevithick had been unable to do. Blenkinsop 
had constructed two locomotives which answered 
every requirement, so far as the action of steam 
and economy of operation were concerned, before 
Stephenson manufactured his first machine. 

The locomotive followed naturally the inven- 
tion of a suitable roadbed, as the wagon and car- 
riage followed a suitable highway. The railway 
track, as referred to elsewhere, was first utilized 
in connection with the handling of coal. The 
bulk of the latter, and the necessity for cheapen- 
ing its price, made some simple appliance for 
transporting it a matter of the greatest possible 
importance to the people of Great Britain. Horses 
were at fin^t used, then steam. The cost of 
transportation over these tramways, or primitive 
railroads, is said to have been about ten per cent, 
of that over the common turnpike. 

The character of the track on which Trevith- 
ick's first locomotive ran is illustrated by Fig. D. 
The character of the rails used for the first track 
on which locomotives were operated is shown by 
Fig. E. These rails were of light weight; in 1825 



BATLWAT EVOLUTION 



27 



I- 




xram Rail witli stone supports, upon which Trevithick's first locomotive raa 

Fia. D. 

the average weight of rails per yard was about 
28 pounds; in 1830 (about the time the locomo- 
tive was introduced) the weight was increased to 
35 pounds per yard. As the weight of locomo- 



28 BUILDING AND EEPAIRING RAILWAYS. 



Birkenshaw's Wrought-Iron Rail, A. D. 1820. 




Sf^G r/ff^'CH/HR. 



George Stepnenson's Fish-Belly Rail, Manchester & Liverpool Railway, 

A. D.1829. 




Rail designed by Robert L. Stevens, A. D. 1830; adopted by American 
railroads. Shaded section shows rail as originally designed, 1830. Section 
not shaded shows rail as rolled, 1831. This rail was fastened to stone blocks 
with hook headed spikes; at the joints were iron tongues fastened to the 
3tem of the rail, put on hot. 



RAILWAY EVOLUTION. 29 

tives and speed of trains have increased, the 
weight of the rail has grown heavier. Ninety 
and even 100 pounds per yard is not uncommon 

, in use now. 

jj The method of supporting the rails on the 
tram road and the first railroad was generally 

j stone blocks placed at their ends, as illustrated 

I by Figs. A, B, C, D and E. 

With the introduction of rolled wrought iron 
rails, in 1805, their length began to increase, and 
this led to the introduction of intermediate sup- 
ports between the joints. The T rail. Fig. E, led 
to the use of cross ties, the early method of use 
is illustrated by Fig. F. 



30 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 




Standard Track of Camden & Amboy Railroad, A. D. 1837. 




Track of Camden & Amboy Railroad. Rails laid on piling through marshes, 

A. D. 1837. 




Stevens' Rail, Vicksburg «& Jackson Railroad, A. D. 184\ 



Fig. F. 



BAIL WAY E VOLUTION. 



31 



To cheapen construction, the strap rail was 
largely used on the early American railroads; it 
is illustrated by Fig. G. 





Stone stringer and Strap Rail, Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, A. D. 1833. This 
was a favorite American device. 




Wooden Stringer and Strap Rail, Albany & Schenectady Railroad, A. D. 
1837. A strap rail was used on many of the first railroads in America, par- 
ticularly in the Central and Western States. 



Fig. G. 



32 



BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 



The method of constructing track with stone 
blocks and stone stringers gave a rigid road bed 
and rough riding track which were very destruc- 
tive to locomotives and cars. This led to the 
introduction of the T rail and the use of cross 
ties.^ 





WMMMsmm 



^Cross-Section of Track in Granite Block 




Fig. H. 

STREET RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 

The rails are laid on continuous beams of concrete made of cement, sand 
and broken stone. The track is held to gauge by steel ties spaced ten feet 
centers. The space between the rail and beam is solidly filled by ramming 
in a mixture of cement and sand. The space under the ties is filled with 
liquid grout. 

This construction is somewhat of a departure from the usual practice in 
this country, and Is found to be more durable and no more expensive than 
the usual wood tie construction. 

The above used at Buffalo, N. Y., St. Paul, Minn., and Kansas City, Mo. 

During the winter months the track of the steam railways is practically 
such as the above. 

The failure of the early methods was duc to poor track and poor rolling 
stock. 

In connection with the construction of railway 
track, it is interesting to notice the methods 

*While the cross tie is generally used by railroads throughout 
the world, the Great Western Railway of England uses a longi- 
tudinal support for its rails. Such support was quite common 
in the early days of railroading, but has, as a rule, been 
abandoned. 



RAILWAY EVOLUTION. 33 

adopted by street railways to secure a permanent 
way where expensive pavements are laid, as illus- 
trated by Fig. H. The weight of the first loco- 
motive on the London and Manchester R. R. was 
7i tons including the tender; in 1831 the weight 
of a goods train with engine was about 50 tons. 
The weight of a modern electric car and motor 
is from 33 to 58 tons; the additional weight of 
passengers when fully loaded is from 4 to 5 tons, 
making a total of 37 to 63 tons. We find that this 
rigid street car track with modern rails and roll- 
ing stock is giving a smooth riding track without 
injuring the rolling stock. 

No rigid connection between the ends of the 
rails laid in a track was made until 1847. Prior 
to that time they were placed one against the 
other in a chair, especially designed for the pur- 
pose, called a joint chair. The ends of the rails 
were not held securely in this chair, but could 
slide past each other and were quickly ruined by 
the wheels jolting over the uneven surface. In 
1847 fish plates for uniting the ends of the rails 
were introduced, and the device has since been 
generally adopted. By this means the rails are 
firmly held together, affording an even surface 
at the top. The fish plate, a strip of iron about 
an inch thick, was placed on either side of, but 
not touching, the web of the rail, the edges of 
the plate being made to perfectly fit the sloping 
sides of the head and foot of the rail. The fish 
plate is held in place by bolts, called fish bolts, 
which pass through the rail and the two fish 

3 Vol. 13 



34 



BUILDING AND BE PAIRING BAILWATS. 



plates (one on either side of the rails), drawing 
the plates together and tightening their edges 
against the rail. The rail was further strength- 
ened at the fish joint by the cross ties being laid 
nearer each other there than in other portions of 
the track. The efficiency of the fish joint de- 
pends upon the plates being kept securely in 
their place. They require to be frequently 
looked after and the bolts screwed up, as they 
are liable to work loose with the jar of the trains 
passing over them. Various styles of fish plates 




English Fish-belly Rail, New Jersey Railroad, A. D. 1832. 

Fig. I. 



and fastenings have been introduced, the object 
being to find some way for holding the bolt and 



RAIL WA Y E VOL UTION. 



35 




Joint Chair and Wedge, Old Portage Railroad, A. D. 1832. 




Stone Block, Rail and Joint Tongue laid on Camden & Amboy Railroad, 

A. D. 1831. 



Fig. I. 



nut firm after being screwed into place, so they 
cannot work loose. 

The early method of fastening rail joints is 
shown by Fig. I. The development of the rail 
joint fastening up to 1860 is illustrated by 
Fig. J. 



36 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS 




Stevens' Rail Supported by Cast-iron Ctiair, A. D. 1837. 




Ring, Joint and Wedge, West Jersey Railroad. 



^^. »«^ 



* '•ei2;^2l^ll_--r--^=? 




Wooden Joint Block, New Jersey Railroad, A. D. 1860. 

Fig. J. 



BAILWAY EVOLUTION. 




Double Splice Bar. 



Erie Rail with ends stamped for Adams' 
Cast-iron Bracket Splice, A. D. 1857. 





Single Splice Bar. 



Double Splice Bar. 



Fig. J. 

The fish plate or splice bar, and the angle plate 
or angle splice bar^ had come into general use by 
1870. Fig. K. illustrates its development from 
1860 to 1880.^ 



*Iii another chapter the reader will find illustrations of the 
rail joints now in use. The best method of fastening the ends 
of rails is still much discussed. 



38 



BUILDING AND BEF AIRING RAILWAYS. 





Plain Splice Bar. 



A. D. 1868. 




Angle Splice Bar, 



Angle Splice Bar. 




Angle Splice Bar. 

Fig. K. 



RAIL WA Y E VOLUTION. 



39 



Early frogs and switches are illustrated by- 
Figs. L and M. 




staple Iron used as a makeshift for a Frog, Camden & Amboy Railroad, 

A. D. 1831. 

Fig. L. 



v_ 



40 BUILDING AND REP^UIilNQ RAILWAYS. 




Frog, Old Portage Railroad, A. D. 1835. 




Wood's Rail Frog, New Jersey, A. D. 1859. 

Fig. L. 




Switches in Colliery Railroads, England, A. D. 1825. 

Fig. M. 



The Method of using bull head rails is shown 
by Fig. N. 




Section of English Permanent Way 

Fia. N. 



As timber became scarce in Europe and other 
countries, metal ties were adopted. Fig. illus- 
trates some of the styles used and the methods 
adopted for fastening the rails. 



42 BUILDING ^iND HE POURING B^ULWAYB, 





Steel Tie, London & Northwestern Railway, A. D. 1885. 




Metal ♦*Pot" Tie, Midland Railway of India. 
A. D. 1889. 



Metal Track, Queensland, A. D. 1889. 




Metal track, Midland Railway, 
A. D. 1889. 



Metal track, London & Northwestern, 
A. D. 1889. 



Fig. 0. 



RAILWAY EVOLUTION. 



43 




Metal track, Elf erf eld Railway, Germany, Metal track, Great Central Railway of Belgium, 
A.D.I 889. A. D. 1889. 

Fig. 0. . 

During the development of the T rail, from 
1830 to 1860, there were a number of devices 
and patterns proposed, some of which are illus- 
trated by Fig. P. , 1" , 



f...^..Z'i 





Cross lie J^'x\6 cltvcI y JTeet Lon^ 



'^'^^-^ Wooden Stringer.«-.6"«'''-vW 

^! T^ck Rectangular Rail, A. D. 1838. 



Latrote's Compound Rail, wood and iron. Baltimore 
&L Ohio Railroad, A. D. 1841- 

Fig. p. 



44 



BUILDING AND REPAIlilNG RAILWAYS. 




First Rail rolled in America, Baltimore & Ohio 92-poun(i Rail, 7 inches high. 
Railroad. 



%^' 




mm 





-V— 1 



T Rail, A. D. 1850. 



Pear-headed Rail, A. D. 1853. 



Fig. p. 



BAILWAT EVOLUTION, 



45 



i 





Pear-headed Rail. 



Pear-headed Rail. 





Compound Rail. 



Compound Rail« 





Compound Rail. 



Compound Rail. 



Fig. p. 



46 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 




Box Kail. 



Barlow's *' Saddle Back " Rail, laid without support* 




Triangular Stringer capped with iron. 

Fig. p. 



CHAPTER II. 

THE RECONNOISSANCE. THE FIRST STEP IN RAILWAY 

CONSTRUCTION. 

In locating a new railway line or extending 
an existing one, many factors must be taken ac- 
count of, such as the cost of the proposed line 
considered in relation to its probable revenue; 
the cost of operation and maintenance; and the 
financial resources of the owners. From an 
operating point of view it is desirable that the 
route shall be as direct as possible, a straight line 
drawn between the termini would be the ideal, 
but other considerations intervene, such as the 
most effective and profitable service that can be 
rendered the population within the territory, the 
cost of construction first and the expense of 
maintenance and operation afterward, the effect 
of the competition of existing or possible lines or 
other forms of transportation, etc."^ 

When it is desired to construct a new line be- 
tween given points or extend an old one to a cer- 
tain point, the first things to know before it can 

*It is recorded that when a great railway line was projected 
in the Russian Empire, the route was a matter of much contro- 
versy. The emx^eror, however, solved the problem by taking a 
ruler and ruling a straight line between the termini. In coun- 
tries like ours, however, commercial considerations are para- 
mount, and no such heroic disposition of the matter is possible. 

(47^ 



48 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 

be determined upon are, what will be the best 
route to take, and the probable cost and charac- 
ter of the road required. To ascertain these it 
is necessary that the country to be traversed 
should be examined by engineers. This examin- 
ation is called a reconnoissance, and is made un- 
der the direction of a civil engineer. ^ It is of 
a preliminary character only and is not intended 
to give an accurate survey of the country. It is 
made to determine: (a) an approximate location 
for the proposed line; (h) that it is possible to 
ascend from a valley on a given grade, and get 
over the summit of the divide; (r^) that it is pos- 
sible to descend from this divide and cross the 
summit of the next on a given grade; (c?) the 
elevation of the passes of the divides to the right 
and left, and (^) that the road can be built with- 
in certain limits of expenditure. 

The method of making the reconnoissance dif- 
fers, of course, according to conditions. 

If the country proposed to be traversed is well 
known and has been settled, accurate maps and 
surveys of it can be readily obtained. Accord- 
ingly, the engineer provides himself with a map 
made preferably on the scale of one inch to a 
mile. Such a map, where a government survey 
has been made, will give the township and sec- 
tion lines; generally the sub-division of each sec- 
tion by farm fences enables any desired point to 
be accurately located. In cases where the coun- 



*The dutios and peculiarities of a railway civil engineer are 
referred to more fully in the Ijook "Railway Organization." 



THE RECONNOISSANCE. 



49 



try has not been surveyed by the government, a 
map or plat will have to be made on a larger 
scale than that indicated — say two inches to a 
mile, so that the boundaries of farms and other 
properties can be clearly shown. 

The engineer who makes the reconnoissance 
will require the following: an aneroid barome- 
ter (Figs. 1, 2 and 3), engineer's field books and 




Fig. 1. 



Fig. 2. 



Fig. 3. 



ANEROID BAROMETER FOR MEASURING ALTITUDES. 

They indicate the weight or pressure of the atmosphere, from which the 
altitude above sea level is determined. 



note books, drawing paper, a set of pocket in- 
struments, (Fig. 4); a tin map case or two, a 100 
ft. steel tape, a prismatic compass (Figs. 5 and 
6); a hand level (Figs. 7 and 8); a field glass 
(Fig. 9). Provided with these instruments, the 
engineer travels the country mostly on foot, lo- 
cating the controlling points. Upon his map he 
will depict not only the location of section lines 

4 Vol. 13 



50 



BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 




Fig. 4. 

ENGINEER'S POCKET INSTRUMENTS. 
These generally embrace drawing pens and large and small compassea 




Fig. 5. 

PRISMATIC COMPASS WITH CLYNOMETER ATTACHMENT 
Used to take bearings. 



THE REC0NN0IS8ANCE. 



bl 




Fig, 6. 

prismatic compass with clynometer attachment. 

Used to take angles of slopes. 

The Prismatic Compass is used lor taking the magnetic bearing of a 
line The Clynometer attachment is used to take the slope of the surface 
of the ground with a horizontal plane. 




Fig. 7. 

LOCK'S HAND LEVEL. 



52 



BUILDING AND BE PAIRING HAILWATS. 




Fig. 8. 

ABNEY'S HAND LEVEL. AND CLYNOMETER. 

1 IJand Levels are used for the purpose of ascertaining points on the same 
evel as the eye of the observer. The Clynometer attachment is used to take 
the slope of the surface of the ground with a horizontal plane. 




Fig. 9. 

FIELD GLASSES. 
The Field Glass brings distant objects within view of the engineer. 

and boundaries of farms and properties, but all 
water courses, ravines, hills, highways, towns, 
villages, etc. In his survey the engineer will 
ascertain by the use of his aneroid barometer 
along the summits of divides ^ the low points or 

*In engineering parlance a "divide" is the line separating 
the water-sheds of two adjacent systems of drainage or rivers. 



THE RECONNOISSANGE. 



53 



passes. He will ascertain the elevation of the 
valleys, and will take the elevation of spurs ^ 
from the divides, also plat the contours f of 

the country at difficult 



points when necessary. 
Where the country is 
unsettled and no gov- 
ernment survey has 
been made, the method 
will differ somewhat 
from the foregoing. In 
such case the engineer 
must secure the eleva- 
tion and distance of the 
controlling points, while 
in the former case the 
plats supplied him with 
the distances. In addi- 
tion to the instruments 
specified he will need a 
pedometer (Fig. 10); 
and an odometer (Figs. 
IIA, IIB, lie), and a 
good watch. He will 
not need to be provided 
with instruments for determining latitude and 
longitude, for the problem has already been re- 
duced to sections. For example, after making 
the summit of one divide, his problem is to cross 

^A **spur" is a ridge extending from a divide and separates 
the water-sheds of two branches of the same river. 

fThe contour of a country is indicated by lines laid down on 
a map showing the location of points of the same elevation. 




PEDOMETER. 
Is a pocket instrument which records 
the distance the person carrying it has 
walked. In reality it records the num- 
ber of steps taken, but by proper ad- 
justment the distance traveled is in- 
dicated. 



54 



BUILDING AND REP AIMING RAILWAYS. 



the next valley and reach the summit of the 
next divide, using the desired grade and curva- 
ture. Any errors of dis- 
tance made from one di- 
vide to another will not 
affect those beyond. In 
i making such surveys 
I camp outfits are neces- 
' sary. These should be as 
light and simple as pos- 
sible. If the country is 
even and sparsely set- 
tled, the engineer will 
probably take two ponies, 
one to carry his appli- 
ances, and the other to 
ride. When possible he 




ODOMETER. 
Records the distance traveled by 
the tire of a wheel. In reality it re- 
cords the number of revolutions, but 
by proper adjustment the distance 
traveled is indicated. 




Fig. IIB. 



ODOMETER. 
Inside dial with leather case and straps. 



secures a guide having local knowledge of the 
country. 



THE RECONNOISSANCE, 



55 




In making a reconnoissance the most direct 
line should always be examined first, unless there 
is positive knowledge of some insurmountable 
difficulty. Should this be the case, of course the 
territory to the right or left will be examined. 
The short route, other things being equal, should 

not, however, be 
too quickly aban- 
doned. Rocky val- 
leys, giving the im- 
pression of difficult 
and expensive con- 
struction, have of- 
ten been summari- 
ly avoided, when af- 
terward they have 
proved to be the 
cheapest location. 
When the gen- 
eral direction of a 
proposed line cros- 
ses ravines or pas- 
ses from a summit 
into a valley, fol- 
lows a stream for 
some distance and 
then ascends another stream to a divide, it will 
be found advisable to look for a high line and 
keep on the summit, following a spur out to the 
stream, cross the stream by a viaduct to a spur 
on the opposite side and again take the summit. 
Such locations need careful comparison as to first 
cost and cost of operating and maintenance, and 




1;'^*' 



Fig. lie. 



ODOMETER. 
Inside dial with leather case and straps. 



66 BUILDING AND REPMRINO RAILWAYS. 

in making a reconnoissance the engineer will give 
them most careful consideration."^ 

Mountain and valley lines are not the most 
difficult to construct as is generally supposed. 
The greatest errors of location have been made 
on open prairies and foot hills of mountains on 
account of stopping exploration when a location 
giving the desired grades curvature and cost was 
found without endeavoring to find a better. 

In making a reconnoissance the engineer will, 
as he proceeds, make calculations and notes 
showing the probable nature of the material to be 
handled i. e.^ whether earth, loose rock, hard pan 
or solid rock, and the percentages of each at dif- 
ferent cuts. This will be approximate only, but 
his observation will afford a basis upon which to 
estimate cost. He will note also the probable 
quantities of excavation, embankments and bridg- 
ing per mile; the fuel supply; possibilities of bus- 
iness; the geological formation, the water supply; 
the timber available for ties, piling and bridging; 
the character of the rainfall, and the effect it 
may have on operation. 

It is an axiom that nature always works along 
the line of least resistance. The engineer fol- 
lows the same rule and makes use of the forces 
of nature to overcome difficulties. The highest 
compliment that can be paid a railroad civil en- 
gineer is for passengers going over a completed 



*0n a railroad in north America a valley line as described 
above was built and afterward abandoned for a high line which 
saved 12 miles of track, and cost nearly a million dollars less 
than the valley line. 



TEE RECONNOISSANCE. 57 

road to remark that the location and construc- 
tion were easy, and required no great knowledge 
or skill, because the passenger is ignorant of the 
expensive bridging avoided and the deep rock 
cuts, the long tunnels and heavy fills, which were 
unnecessary on account of the skill displayed by 
the engineer who made the reconnoissance. 

(Note: — The student requiring detailed information in regard 
to the methods of making a reconnoissance, and the use of the 
barometer, stadia, and gradienter to measure distance, wiU find 
a list of standard books on the subjects in Appendix K). 



CHAPl^ER III. 

THE PRELIMINARY SURVEY. THE SECOND STEP IN 

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. 

The reconnoissance having been completed 
and a report thereof made to the projectors, they 
will have the information needed to enable them 
to decide whether or not they will proceed with 
their venture. If their decision is in the affirm- 
ative and the outlook is favorable, the second 
step is now taken which is to make a Prelimin- 
ary Survey; this duty falls to the lot of a civil 
engineer, generally called a locating engineer, 
who takes the field with his corps of assistants. 
The instruments the locating engineer will re- 
quire in this work will be (a) a hand level, (b) 
an aneroid barometer, (c) a field glass, (d) a 
prismatic compass, (^) a pedometer and (/) a 50 
ft. steel tape. The party will, of course, be fur- 
nished with the necessary stationery and kindred 
supplies. 

The organization of the force making the pre- 
liminary survey will vary according to the char- 
acter of the country and other considerations, 
such as the resources of the projectors and the 
degree of haste required, the latter factor being 
often controlled by financial considerations, or 
the probability of an invasion of the field by 
rivals. 

(58) 



THE PBELIMINARY SURVEY. 



59 



If the proposed line is a new one, the chief en- 
gineer will probably take direct charge of the 




Fig. 12. 

ENGINEER'S TRANSIT WITH LEVEL. AND VERTICAL ARC. 
Used to take vertical and horizontal angles; also to extend straight lines. 
The. level enables approximate elevations to be taken within limited dis- 
tances. The vertical arc is used for taking vertical angles. 

work; if on the other hand it is an extension of 
an existing system, a locating engineer will have 



60 



BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAT^^ 



charge, acting in subordination to the chief en- 
gineer of the system. 




Fig. 13. 



ENGINEER'S TRANSIT WITH LEVEL AND GRADIENTER 
ATTACHMENT. 
The gradienter attachment is for the purpose of locating the axis of the 
telescope on a grade line parallel with the grade of the proposed road; in con- 
nection with a level rod it is also used to measure distances. 

The organization of the force making a pre- 
liminary survey generally consists of (a) a tran- 



THE PRELIMINARY SURVEY. 



61 




sit party, (&) a level party, (c) topographers, ((i) 
draughtsmen, (^) commissary and camp. 

The transit par- 
ty is generally 
made up of a 
transit man who, 
in the absence 
of the locating 
engineer, is in 
charge; the tran- 
sit man is respon- 
sible for the ac- 
curacy of all 
angles, bearings 
and measure- 

FiG. 14. 

ENGINEERS CHAIN. 
100 feet long, having 100 links. 

ments taken; his assist- 
ants are a head flagman 
or chainman, a rear 
chainman, an axeman 
or stakedriver, and a 
rear flagman. The num- 
ber of assistants will 
vary according to cir- 
cumstances; thus, the 
number of axemen will 
depend on whether 
there is much or little 
timber or brush to be 
removed, etc. The in- 
struments and supplies the transit party need are 
(a) a transit (Figs. 12 and 13), (h) an engineer's 




Fig. 15. 



ENGINEER'S IMPROVED TAPE 
CHAIN. 



62 



BUILDING AND RE PAIRING RAILWAYS, 



chain (Figs. 14 and 15), {c) a 100 ft. steel tape, 
(Fig. 16), (r/) two ranging poles or rods (Fig. 17), 




Fig. 16. 

STEEL TAPE. 



{e) brush hooks, (/) axes, {g) transit books, (A) 
lead pencils, hard and medium, (i) kiel pencils, 



Sji 



Fig. 17. 

' RANGING RODS OR POLES. 

Used in placing hubs. 

{j) tacks for centers on hubs, {k) two 50 ft. Ches- 
terman's metallic tapes (Fig. 18), (Z) engineer's 
field book, (m) scratch blocks, (w) one sounding 
rod, 3 joints 8 feet each, (o) red and white flan- 
nel for signals, (^) drawing paper, (^q) tin map 
cases, (r) scales (Fig. 19), (.s) protractor (Figs. 20 
and 21), (t) steel straight edge, {it) triangles, (t;) 



THE PRELIMINARY SURVEY, 



63 



India ink and ink slab and carmine blue and 
neutral tint water colors, {ic) set of, drawing in- 
struments and drawing board. 

The leveling party is 
generally made up of a 
leveler and a rodman, 
but if rapid work is to be 
done, the force can be 
increased to meet re- 
quirements. The level- ^la. 1 8. 
ing party is responsible chesterman's metallic tape. 
for the correct elevation of the ground at all sta,- 




Vs^^^(9£if(^^sis»si^)S)S^^ 



^\^^^^\^ x Av^ N Annn\\v%\\\\\\\\\^\N\A\n\\\V\\\n\\V^\v\nV xx\ v vxv\ uW, 



Fig. 19. 

ENGINEER'S SCALE. 
Divided into 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60 parts to tlie inch. 




Fig. 20. 

PROTRACTOR. 

tions where stakes are driven, the elevation be- 
tween the stakes where the slope of the ground 



0> 



BUILDING AND HE PAIRING RAILWAYS. 



changes and the correct location of this point; the 
elevation of the water in streams; the elevation of 




Fig. 21. 

TRANSPARENT PROTRACTOR WITH RAILROAD CURVES. 




Fig. 22. 

ENGINEER'S Y LEVEL. 
For taking elevations and establishing benches. 

high water during freshets; and the elevation of 
the beds of the streams which will enable cross 



I 



THE PRELIMINARY SURVEY, 



65 



sections of the stream to be platted; the placing 
of benches at proper intervals and the correct 
elevation of them. 

The leveling party will require the following 
(a) a level (Fig. 22), {h) two Philadelphia 
leveling rods (Fig. 23), (c) one Chester- 
man's fifty-foot metallic tape, (c?) nails to 
use in benches, {e) a hand axe with leather 
case and belt, (/) level books, (^g) lead pen- 
cils, hard and medium, (A) profile paper 
(i) kiel pencils, (y) India ink and ink slab 
and carmine blue and neutral tint water 
colors, {k) scratch blocks. 

The topographical party is most variable 
in its composition. Sometimes it is repre- 
sented by the notes taken by the locating 
engineer and transitman, and at other 
times it may consist of a level man, rodman, 
chainman, and axeman. The topographical 
party is responsible for the data used in 
determining the rise or fall of the ground 
to the right and left of the line; the loca- 
tion of roads, buildings, streams, etc., lay- 
ing to the right and left of the line, prop- 
erty lines and names of the owners of the 
property, also the section lines where a 
government survey has been made; YiOr, 23. 
the character of the material to be Philadelphia 
met with in the excavations, etc. i^^veling rod. 

The instruments and supplies required by the 
party will vary greatly according to the require- 
ments of the case, but a complete equipment for 
the party would be as follows: (a) one level 

5 Vol. 13 



66 



BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 



(Figs. 22 and 24), {h) one Philadelphia level 
rod, (c) one self-reading level rod, (rf) one 100 




Fig. 24. 

LEVELING INSTRUMENT AND GRADIENTER. 
For topographical work. With this both elevations and distances can be 

taken. 




Fig. 25. 

CLYNOMETER, OR SLOPE INSTRUMENT. 

ft. steel tape, {e) one hand level, (/) one pris- 
matic compass with clynometer attachment, (^) 



THE PRELIMINARY SURVEY, 67 

one clynometer (Fig. 25), (A) topographical 
books, cross section books and cross section paper 
(lOths). 

The draughtsman (or draughtsmen) accom- 
panies the party to record the result of its oper- 
ations by making the necessary drawings and 
maps. His accessories are (a) a set of drawing 
instruments, (&) protractor, (c) straight edge, 
{d) scale, {e) triangles, (/) lead pencils, hard 
and medium, (^) drawing paper, cross section 
paper and profile paper, (A) cross section books, 
(i) India ink, ink slab, carmine blue and neutral 
tint water colors, (J) camel's hairbrushes, (Jc) 
drawing board and trestles, (/) thumb tacks. 

The commissary and camp party is, of course, 
unnecessary in a well settled country, but is a 
most important adjunct in other cases; when it 
is necessary to make provision for feeding and 
housing the force it is of the greatest importance 
that intelligent provision be made for its health 
and comfort, as serious results may ensue if the 
survey be delayed through sickness or lack of 
subsistence. 

The result of the reconnoissance will have 
enabled the projectors to decide the maximum 
grades and degrees of curvatures that w^ill be ac- 
ceptable; the average cost of the bridges proposed 
to be used; the cost per yard for earth, loose rock, 
solid rock and hard pan; the cost per mile of 
track; the cost of depots, water stations, coal 
sheds, etc., and the locating engineer will have 
been furnished with this data. 

The detailed methods adopted in making a 



68 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

preliminary survey will probably never be alike 
in any two instances; they will depend upon the 
genius and capacity of the engineer in charge, 
but there are several well defined plans or 
methods of operation, which may be described 
in general terms, as follows: 

First Method: The engineer tries to get the 
preliminary line as close as possible to the ground 
to be occupied by the location. He has what is 
termed '' an eye for country" and keeps the level 
party close up to the transit party, having the 
profile of the ground platted in the field; on this 
profile he lays down trial grade lines; side notes 
of the rise or fall of the ground are noted by 
him on the plat when he thinks they will assist 
him. A trial line is made from the point of 
commencement of the survey to the summit of 
the first divide; if it does not prove satisfactory, 
an examination of the map and profile is made, 
and with the side notes and knowledge of the lay 
of the country, such changes are made as the 
engineer thinks proper. The map of such a pre- 
liminary survey gives the alignment, streams, 
highways, buildings, and section lines bounding 
the property belonging to different owners, 
together with the names of the latter; ridges 
and bluffs are often indicated by hatched 
lines. This method is pursued from one con- 
trolling point to another. No attempt is 
made to show on the map any examinations 
that may have been made to ascertain whether a 
better line could have been secured to the right 
or left- In this case the management accepts the 



THE PRELIMINABT SURVEY, 69 

line, if it fulfills the required conditions, depend- 
ing upon the opinion of the engineer as to whether 
it is the best that can be secured. 

Second Method: Under this method a step 
towards greater accuracy is secured by having a 
topographer and assistant added to the party 
who take side notes with hand level and tape 
line, locating the streams, highways, buildings, 
etc. The contours are also laid down on the 
map, and the line is revised as in the first method, 
but with the advantage of having more data re- 
garding the lay of the ground. 

Third Method: Under this method greater 
accuracy is secured. The topographer with a 
level, a rodman and a chainman proceeds to 
make cross sections of the country at right 
angles to the line at all points where the slope 
of the ground changes, carrying the cross sections 
out such distance as the engineer directs. This 
gives more accurate data from which to locate 
the contours, and gives the engineer fuller data 
from which to decide on the location of the line. 
This method also gives the engineer the means 
of furnishing the management with a map con- 
taining data which will enable it to call in a con- 
sulting engineer to criticise the line selected. 

Fourth Method: This method is the one used by 
a large railway system in North America, and aims 
at greater accuracy than the preceding ones; it 
also tends to eliminate errors of judgment of the 
engineer in charge of the survey. The engineer 
proceeds with the survey as in the first method, 
and is furnished a topographer and assistants as 



70 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

provided in the third method. The topographer 
is required to cross section the country at right 
angles to the line every three hundred feet, and 
carry the cross sections out at least 700 feet each 
side of the line. On each line on which cross 
sections are made, side elevations are taken every 
three hundred feet at a distance of one hundred 
feet right and left. By this method the eleva- 
tion of the ground is secured on both sides of 
the line ran at each one hundred foot station; 
and accurate data is secured to make a reliable 
contour map covering a stretch of country four- 
teen hundred feet wide or about one-quarter of 
a mile. This enables an expert to locate the 
best line from the map, and eliminate the errors 
of judgment of the one in charge of the survey. 
Fifth Method: This method is used by one of 
the leading railroads of the world, and is radi- 
cally different from any of the preceding ones. 
The engineer aims more to lay his line so that 
he can secure, at least expense, data to make a 
topographical map of an extended area of 
country. The preliminary survey is made quickly, 
and the method of taking the topography is 
rapid, and with a good topographer accuracy is 
secured. The maps and profiles are made as 
the survey proceeds, but generally the contours 
are not worked out in the field, although if neces- 
sary this can be done. When this method is 
observed it is usual to follow the preliminary 
survey with a location running out the tangents 
only, as shown by a location from the topo- 
graphical map of the preliminary survey. On 



THE PRELIMINARY SURVEY. 71 

this first location topographical notes are taken 
as on the preliminary. From the notes made 
from this location, a second topographical map 
is made, and from this second map the final loca- 
tion is made. Topographical notes are again 
taken on the second location and another map 
made, from which a study of the possibilities of 
improving and cheapening the line is made 
before construction commences. The method of 
taking the topography is to ascertain the angle 
which the surface of the ground slopes with a 
horizontal line and measuring the length of the 
slope to where the ground assumes another 
slope, take the angle of this slope and measure 
the length of it, etc. 

The following is an outline in general terms 
of the details of a preliminary survey: 

In starting the survey the first hub^ should be 
driven in the center line of the railroad which 
the new line is to connect with, and the angle 
taken with the center line of the existing rail- 
road and the first tangent of the proposed road. 
This hub should be carefully referenced to some 
permanent objects so that it can be replaced if 
destroyed. Stakes should be set securely in the 
ground, the blazed side facing the first hub; the 
first stake should be set 100 feet from the hub 
and marked number one, the second stake should 
be set 100 feet from the first and marked num- 

*The term ''hub" is used by engineers to distingjuish the points 
over which the transit is placed — it is usually a large size stake 
driven flush with the ground; in a rocky bluff it may be a small 
hole in the rock or a plug driven in a crevice of the rock or a 
hole drilled in the rock. 



72 BUILDING jVND REP AIMING RAILWAYS. 

ber two. In this way the transit party proceeds 
to set stakes every 100 feet, and puts the num- 
bers on the blazed side facing the first hub. The 
numbers on the stakes thus show the number of 
one hundred feet from the point of commence- 
ment of the survey. Wherever the transit is set 
up a large stake or hub is driven, and a large tack 
or small nail driven in the point set by the tran- 
sit man. At a distance of about eighteen inches 
from the hub a reference stake is driven giving 
the station of the hub, thus if the second hub on 
the survey is driven at a distance of 1006.3 feet 
from the first the reference stake would be 
marked 10+06.3, which would mean ten stations 
and six and three-tenths feet; the numbers on the 
reference stake should face the hub; all stakes 
should be set by the transit man. 

When the survey has progressed to a point 
where the locating engineer wishes to change the 
direction, a hub is driven, and the back flag man 
holds his ranging pole on the tack of the hub 
next to the end of the line; the transit is set up 
on the last hub, the vernier of the transit set at 
zero, and a sight taken on the ranging rod held 
by the back flag man, the upper plate undamped, 
and the telescope sighted to a hub on the new line 
ahead, and the angle read from the vernier; the 
magnetic bearing of both the first and second 
lines should be taken at this time. The transit 
man records the stations of all hubs where the 
transit is set up; also the angles of one line with 
another and whether turned to the right or left; 
also the magnetic bearings of both lines at hubs 



THE PRELIMINAET SURVEY. 73 

where angles are taken or the direction of the 
survey changes. If there is no topographer, 
the transit man also takes the topographical 
notes, the transit book is ruled on the left-hand 
page for the notes of the line, and on the right- 
hand page for the notes of the topography. 

The head chainman, who generally acts as 
head flagman, carries the head end of the chain 
and a ranging rod; after he has been given the line 
for a stake it is his duty to see that the axeman 
marks it correctly, and places it in the ground 
with the figures facing the right direction; while 
the axeman is driving the stake, the chainmen 
proceed. It is the duty of the hind chainman to 
note the numbers on each stake as he proceeds, 
and at once have the axeman correct any errors 
in numbering or direction of facing the stake. 
The leveling party also checks the numbers on 
the stakes; this is very important as the numbers 
on the stakes are the only means of determining 
the lengths of the lines composing the survey. 

In commencing the levels a bench^ is estab- 
lished on some permanent object, and if the survey 
of a new line is being made, the height of the 
bench is assumed at an elevation above a datum 
plane, which the locating engineer is sure is lower 
than any part of the country he is going to make 
the survey in, to avoid the confusion of minus 
quantities. Where the elevation above sea level 
can be secured by the barometer or otherwise, it 
is better to make sea level the datum plane. 

*A "bench" is any permanent object on which an elevation is 
taken; the elevation of the first bench used in a survey is gener- 
ally given an assumed elevation. 



74 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 

When the new line is an extension of an older 
system, the same datum plane should be used, as 
was adopted on the old one. 

As the levels proceed, benches should be es- 
tablished at least once each mile; they should 
be on permanent objects, wherever such are 
possible to be secured. The projecting root 
of a tree when cut in the shape of a cone, with a 
nail driven in it, makes a good bench; the tree 
in this case should be blazed, and the letters 
B. M.^ with the elevation of the bench marked 
under them; stone sills of doors, water tables of 
buildings, etc., make good benches, though often- 
times nothing better than a hub can be secured. 
All benches should be marked plainly with the 
letters B.M. and the elevation. When a hub is 
used a reference stake should be driven as for a 
transit hub, and it should always be placed some 
distance to the right or left of the line, so as not 
to be mistaken for a transit hub. 

The leveler should record all benches, giving 
their location and elevation: for example, station 
52+26.5 B.M. 50 feet K. elev. 482.645 means 
that at a point 50 feet on the right side of the 
surveyed line, opposite station 52+26.5, there is 
a bench having an elevation of 482.645 feet above 
the assumed datum plane. The reference stake 
should have the figures facing the bench and the 
line. 

The leveler should record all readings of the 
rod for back and foresight on benches and turn- 
ing points (or temporary benches) and these 

*The letters " B.M." stand for Bench Mark. 



THE PRELIMINARY SURVEY. 75 

readings should be taken to not less than two 
decimal points of a foot, but it would be better 
to read the rod to three decimal points. This 
can be readily done with a Philadelphia rod, 
after a little practice. The elevations of the 
ground should be taken at each one hundred foot 
station where stakes are driven, and at such 
intermediate points where the ground changes, 
as will enable a correct profile to be platted. In 
taking the elevations of the ground, the Phil- 
adelphia rod can be used as a self-reading rod, 
and the readings taken to the nearest tenth. 

The rodman should have a level book in which 
to record all back and foresights on benches and 
turning points, and to record the location of 
benches. It is the duty of the rodman to see 
that the stakes are all correctly numbered con- 
secutively; the leveler can assist in seeing that 
this is properly done. 

As far as possible all back and foresights should 
be of an equal distance so that errors in setting 
the target will balance each other. Sights should 
not usually exceed five hundred feet in length, 
and in windy weather a less distance is prefer- 
able. 

To insure accuracy it is necessary to have 
check levels run to detect errors in taking the 
elevation of benches; if the errors remain undis- 
covered it might not be possible, when the loca- 
tion came to be made, to reach a summit on the 
grade proposed, or the cost of the work might be 
greatly increased by heavier cuts and fills than 
the profile indicated. 



76 BUILDING AND HE PAIRING RAILWAYS. 

Level books are ruled with six columns to a 
page, and the safest way to keep the notes is as 
follows: on the left-hand page use the first col- 
umn for the station, second column for the back 
sight, third column for the height of instrument, 
fourth for the foresight, fifth for the reading of 
the rod on all points except benches and turning 
points, sixth for the elevation of all points on 
which the rod is held except benches and turn- 
ing points. The right hand page should be used 
to give the elevation of benches, turning points 
and their description and location, and other 
miscellaneous notes as for example: 

Elevation 482.645 50 ft Right of 52+26.5 B. M. 
on Chestnut Tree. 

Elevation of surf ace of water in '^Cobb^s Creek.^^ 

Elevation of high water ^'CobVs Creek^^ June 16, 
1895. 

Elevation of center of highway station 55+20. 
and any other notes of elevations of objects 
which may affect the location or construction of 
the road or be of use in future claims for dam- 
ages. 

By this method of keeping the notes, back and 
foresights can be added up on the first page, and 
the footings carried to the top of the second, and 
the footings of the second being the total of the 
first and second pages carried to the top of the 
third, the same as the footings of a cash book. 
The advantage is that the levelman at noon can 
in five minutes have his back and foresights 
footed up for the morning's work, and if the dif- 
ference between them gives the elevation of his 



THE PRELIMINARY SURVEY, 77 

last bench or turning point, he knows there has 
been no clerical error in his morning's work. If 
he now turns to his rodman and does the same 
thing with his notes and secures the same result, 
he knows he has been using the correct readings 
of the target, and has not misunderstood the rod- 
man — a thing which can be easily done in windy 
weather. A check can be secured on the rod- 
man's reading the target by using the Philadel- 
phia rod; and when taking both back and fore- 
sights on benches or turning points, using the rod 
first as a self-reading rod the leveler can then tell 
whether the rodman gives the feet and tenths 
correctly. Where this method of taking levels 
is pursued, there should not be any mistake of 
importance made. 

The leveler will often be required to plat his 
profile in the field, so that the locating engineer 
can determine whether the ground is rising too 
fast for the length of the line, or whether his 
line is too low in the valley; to do this the level- 
er must make use of the time the rodman is 
walking between stations to work out the eleva- 
tion of the ground. This will enable him to act 
promptly when called upon for profile. 

The person in charge of topography should be 
a man of judgment with a good eye for country, 
and for the salient points to take data which will 
enable the contours to be platted with the least 
difficulty and labor on the part of the draughts- 
man. He should keep his work up close to the 
level party, and have his ^notes clear and exact; 
in addition to securing data for the contours, he 



78 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 

should sketch the streams, highways, buildings, 
section lines, division fences of farms, and, if 
possible, secure and record the names of the own- 
ers of land. He should note the character of the 
soil, whether earth, loose rock, solid rock, etc., 
and note the outcroppings of bluffs. 

The note books used in the field on one day 
should be left with the draughtsman to plat the 
notes on the following day, and the field force 
should use another set of note books for the fol- 
lowing day, the two sets thus alternating between 
the field force and the draughtsman. To avoid 
confusion each man using a field book of any 
kind whatever should commence the day's work 
by recording the date and time of the day, also 
noting the day of the week and month, and the 
same thing must be done on closing at night, or 
when finishing one book and commencing an- 
other. The books should be lettered and num- 
bered, and the commencing and closing station 
noted on the cover; also the letter or number of 
the line. Much confusion is sometimes caused 
by not observing these details, where the survey 
is in difficult country, and a number of trial lines 
have to be run. 

Another point to be observed is never to erase 
any notes taken in the field; if any changes are 
to be made, the changes should be noted with a 
different colored pencil than is used in the field 
or with ink; further information may demonstrate 
the original notes to have been correct or, at 
least, that the alterations were incorrect. If field 
notes. are copied into another book, the original 



THE PRmLIMINARY SURVEY, 79 

should be preserved, so that clerical errors in 
copying can be corrected. 

The draughtsman being provided with the 
notes as outlined can keep the work up close, so 
that the locating engineer can know definitely 
what he is doing. After extending the survey 
for some distance, and reaching a controlling 
point where he feels satisfied the country on 
either the right or left does not present a more 
favorable point, he can make a careful examina- 
tion of the maps, profiles, etc., and also of the 
country traversed with a view to making such 
changes as the data secured suggests. At this 
point in the survey, the location very often com- 
mences, and is made from the junction of the ex- 
isting road to the controlling point mentioned. 
The peculiarities of location will be treated later. 

If the survey is being conducted in a settled 
country, the party at this point in the prelimin- 
ary survey moves on to a town or village near 
the next section of the survey, or if in a thinly 
settled section, camp is moved to a convenient 
location. The frequency of these changes de- 
pends on the character of the country. In an 
easy country they are often made daily, while in 
difiicult country the party may have headquarters 
at a given point for many days. In addition to 
the work outlined above, the locating engineer 
has other duties to perform. Thus, the extreme 
high and low water levels must be noted of all 
streams crossed, and also cross sections of the 
streams must be secured; careful notes must be 
taken of the probable classification of the mate- 



80 BUILDING AND liEPAIBING RAILWAYS. 

rial composing the cuts, as the question of water 
supply for locomotives may decide the choice of 
location; especially in arid countries must this 
be noted; the fuel supply must be considered, and 
in connection with this the geological formation 
must be noted not only for coal but minerals 
which may yield profitable business; the commer- 
cial possibilities of the country must be set forth 
and the localities suited for towns, yards and divi- 
sion points suggested. The locating engineer 
must be a man of resources, and ready to adapt 
old methods to new conditions, and he must also 
be able to devise new methods to meet condi- 
tions which are new to him if not to other en- 
gineers. Thus a rocky canyon where the instru- 
ment men can not get on the line of the proposed 
road even with the use of assistants and ropes, 
requires the surface of the cliff to be located 
both for line and levels by triangulating from 
the valley below the opposite side of the canyon, 
or from the top of the opposite bluff. The ob- 
stacle offered by a marshy plain too soft for men 
to walk over, and over which there is not enough 
water to float a boat, will sometimes tax the re- 
sources of the engineer, but it must be overcome. 
A heavily timbered country with a thick under- 
growth of brush and vines, such as is the rule in 
tropical and semi-tropical countries, especially 
near streams, will call for a display of skill and 
resources. 

Two maps of the preliminary survey should be 
made, one on a scale of one mile to an inch. 
This should be platted from co-ordinates, calcu- 



THE PRELIMINARY SURVEY. 81 

lated in the same way as the latitudes and de- 
partures of a farm survey; such a map gives a 
comprehensive view of the entire route; the cal- 
culations for co-ordinates give a ready means to 
ascertain the distance across country between 
any two points of the survey and the direction to 
lay a line to make a survey of the cross cut. The 
usual maps on the scale of two hundred or four 
hundred feet to an inch can only cover sections 
of the survey, and do not give an opportunity to 
study the line as a whole. 

It is always well to make examinations of the 
country from each terminus, as it frequently 
happens that another route and a better one is 
discovered by the locating engineer going back 
over the line from the end of the survey to the 
point of commencement. 

The preliminary survey should be thorough, 
and all possible improvements in the line and 
grades tried, so that the work of location may be 
rapid and require but few changes. 

Finally, the locating engineer must understand 
handling his men, and be able to get the maxi- 
mum amount of work done with the minimum 
amount of friction among the members of the 
party; he must use tact with the people in the 
district through which the survey is being made; 
their local history and prejudices should be taken 
note of, and he should ascertain Avho are their 
leaders in forming public opinion. 

Another point to be touched upon before pro- 
ceeding to discuss the location is the methods 
adopted to determine which of two or more 

6 Vol. 13 



82 BUILDING AND BE PAIRING RAILWAYS. 

routes will be the cheapest to operate, taking into 
consideration the first cost, the cost of operation 
and the coat of maintenance. The determina- 
tion of this question is of the greatest import- 
ance, and is the one surrounded with the great- 
est difficulties; only those actually in the active 
management of railroads and those who have at- 
tempted to furnish a reliable means of reaching 
a decision realize the difficulties. The locating 
engineer on a preliminary survey must always 
keep this subject in his mind. 

For further details and methods in relation to 
preliminary surveys as given by different engi- 
neers the reader is referred to Appendix K. 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE LOCATION. THE THIRD STEP IN RAILWAY CON- 
STRUCTION. 

The reconnoissance and preliminary survey 
having been made and the results reported to the 
projectors of the new line, they have definite 
data upon which to proceed. They now know 
enough to be in a position to estimate the cost of 
the proposed line; the grades and curves that are 
possible and the engineering obstacles that have 
to be overcome; they are also in a position to 
estimate the probable cost of operation. 

The question that now has to be decided, the 
reconnoissance and preliminary survey having 
given them information as to all the available 
routes where the line can be most advantage- 
ously located, is, which will be the cheapest 
route, having regard to cost of construction first 
and cost of operation and maintenance after- 
ward. When these questions have been decided, 
a party is put into the field to make the final 
location. 

The organization of the locating party, the 
duties of the various members, and the instru- 
ments and supplies required will be practically 
the same as in the case of the preliminary sur- 
vey, except that the transit party will lay out 

(83) 



84 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

spirals,* curves, etc., in detail, f and will place 
stakes at each one hundred feet on curves the 
same as on the straight lines in the preliminary 
survey, and will carry the numbering along the 
measured distances on the tangents, spirals and 
curves. The duties of the leveling party will 
be the same as in the case of the preliminary 
survey. The services of the topographer will be 
needed now as then, indeed his notes will be 
more full and exact though they will not extend 
so far to the right and left as in the former case. 
The draughtsman will accompany the party as 
before, but his work will be done with more at- 
tention to detail, and his maps and profiles 
finished with greater care and exactness. 

The locating party will make soundings at all 
watercourses to ascertain the depth of the rock 
or hard strata necessary for bridge foundations, 
and will lay the grade lines. J In conducting the 

*A "spiral" is a parabolic or eUiptical curve placed between a 
tangent and a curve to secure the gradual change in the move- 
ment of a train from a tangent to a curve. 

tXhe work of locating is often carried on at the same time as 
the preliminary survey. For detailed methods of laying spirals, 
the following authors may be consulted; J. C. Nagle, W. H. 
Searles, Van Nostrand's Science Series No. 110, C. R. Howard 
and C. L. Crandall. The calculations for laying out curves, 
changing the direction of tangents, locating compound and re- 
verse curves, and similar problems, are given in a number of 
"Engineers' Field Books," among which may be mentioned 
those of W. H. Searles, J. C. Nagle, W. F. Shunk, C. S. Cross, 
J. C. Trautwine, and J. B. Houck. 

JAppendix H gives rules and values to enable a comparison 
to be made between two or more proposed routes. The amount 
of the reduction of grades on curves to make the resistence to 
the train correspond with that on the tangents has not yet been 
settled; opinions vary from 0.025 ft. per degree of curvature to 
0.05 ft. The latter is, perhaps, the safer to use. The practice is 
generally to eauate the grades on curves to the extent that they 
will not exceed the maximum grade. 



THE LOCATION. 85 

work of locating, there are a number of methods 
which can be adopted on the trial lines, some of 
which may be mentioned, viz: 

First: Running the tangents to an intersec- 
tion and putting stakes in only on the tangents 
to the points where the curves commence and 
end, carrying the numbers on the stakes the 
same as if the curves were run. The level read- 
ings can be taken at the center and quarter 
points of the curve. 

Second: Running the curves of the paper lo- 
cation without running the tangents to an inter- 
section and going ahead or backing upon the 
curve to make the tangent fit the ground. 

Thwd: Locating points on a curve by a long 
chord and backing the curve in.^ 

The survey of inaccessible bluffs is referred 
to under the head of the preliminary survey, and 
the same remarks apply to the locating party. 
In such localities the constructing forces make a 
roadbed along the face of the bluff on the estab- 
lished grade, and the alignment is worked out to 
fit the roadbed. 

As long tangents as possible should always be 
secured; a persistent examination of the coun- 
try and study of the map and profile will often 
result in a much larger percentage of long tan- 
gents than is at first thought possible. 

Absolute reverse curves should never be used, 
unless in very heavy rock work where the plac- 

*This is a conyenient method in rocky country on the sides 
of bluffs where the transit man, his instrument and assistants 
have to be supported by ropes let down from the top of a bluff. 



86 BUILDING AND RE POURING RAILWAYS. 

ing of a tangent between curves would entail 
heavy expense. Such cases will, however, be 
rare if proper care in selecting the location is 
taken. 

Reverse curves should always have a tangent 
between them of sufficient length to enable the 
cars to gain their equilibrium after leaving one 
curve and before entering on another (see Appen- 
dix H). 

The intersection of all grades should be con- 
nected by a vertical curve; there should never be 
a level grade laid through a cut, as in such case 
it is difficult to drain the water away from the 
cut. 

All bridging that can possibly be dispensed 
with without unduly increasing the cost of grad- 
ing should be avoided, especially where draw 
bridges are required over navigable streams; a 
considerable increase in the cost of grading can 
be allowed if it will enable the engineer to avoid 
a drawbridge. 

Sharp curvature, like a succession of short tan- 
gents and curves, should, when possible, be 
avoided. Heavy cuts should be avoided if possi- 
ble, as they cause trouble during snow storms. 

The locating engineer, transit man and leveler 
must all take fuller information than on the pre- 
liminary survey regarding the following matters, 
viz: 

Heights of high water and low water at streams, 
making careful cross sections of the larger ones; 
soundings must be made to determine the depth 
to hard pan or rock; inquiries must be made re- 



THE LOCATION. 87 

garding the rainfall and such information as may 
throw light on the proper size to adopt for bridge 
openings. Section and property lines must be 
located both by the station at which they cross 
the survey and the angle with the line."^ The 
locating engineer must give his personal atten- 
tion to noting the classification of the material 
in the cuts and possible borrowpits, the geolog- 
ical formation, the water and fuel supply, the 
rainfall, the commercial prospects, the possible 
town sites, yards and division points. f 

The surveyed line should be divided into sec- 
tions of about one mile each, and the amount of 
all excavation and embankment work calculated 
with its probable classification. Calculations 
must also be made of the amount of piling, square 
timber and wrought and cast iron required for 
the bridging for each opening. J 

Calculations must also be made for masonry of 
all kinds, such as that required for bridge abut- 
ments and piers, retaining walls, arch and open 
culverts, truss bridges of wood or iron and steel 
or plate girder bridges, depots, track and yards, 
round houses and shops. In fact, everything re- 
quired to be done or constructed to complete the 
road for the running of trains must be carefully 

*This should be done with a transit and the distance measured 
from located line to the section corners, highways, buildings, 
streams, etc. 

fThe hubs can be referenced in by the locating party; but it 
is well to let the engineer on construction do this. 

JThe number of openings ma3% however, be reduced after- 
wards, possibly, by changing the courses of streams and drains 
or ravines after the location has been decided on. 



88 BUILDING ^iND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

calculated, so that the estimated cost may be 
ascertained before actual construction commences. 
The map of the completed location will show 
the alignment giving the point of curvature, the 
radius of the curve and total angle formed by the 
intersection of the tangents, the point where the 
curve ends and tangent commences, the centered 
hubs on the curves and tangents, the right of way 
required for the road, depot grounds, yards and 
borrowpits, the names of the property owners; 
also the plats of towns and villages, highways, 
section lines and location of section corners where 
a U. S. government survey has been made; also 
buildings and streams. In addition this map 
should give the contour lines, so that possible 
improvements can be studied in the office of the 
chief engineer. The profile should have the 
ground line drawn with India ink, and tinted on 
the ground or lower side with neutral tint; the 
grade line should be shown with carmine; the 
elevation at each change of grade and the rate 
of grade between each change should be given; 
the bridging and various openings should be 
marked and the character of the bridge or open- 
ing stated; high and low water should be shown 
with blue; the names of the streams given and 
the division points between sections shown. At 
the bottom of the profile the alignment should be 
given showing the width of the right of way, names 
of owners of the property, the roads, streams and 
towns and villages; the estimated quantities 
should be shown on each section with the classi- 
fication, and the amount of excavation and em- 



THE LOG AT I O:^. 89 

bankment in each cut and fill should be given."^ 
For further details and methods in relation to 
location as given by different engineers the reader 
is referred to Appendix K. 

*Ia connection with this chapter the reader is referred to 
Appendix I, which treats on location, for more detailed informa- 
tion. 



CHAPTER V. 

CONSTRUCTION. 

The route having been definitely located, pro- 
posals are invited from contractors to construct 
the road; agents are sent out to secure the right 
of way, and the engineering force, under the 
direction of the chief engineer, is placed in the 
field to plan and supervise the work of building. 
The official in immediate charge of the work is 
generally known by the title of Division En- 
gineer.*^ 

The division engineer should be one experienced 
in 'methods of railway construction and of execu- 
tive ability; he should have knowledge of the 
methods contractors adopt to do the work, and 
also of those which are sometimes resorted to to 
avoid doing it. 

The headquarters of the division engineer 
should be located at such a point on his division 
that he can readily reach any point on it, and yet 
be convenient to the telegraph and postoffice; he 
is generally given a clerk and draughtsman. 

*It is well to state here that the titles given subordioate en- 
gineers vary so on different systems that it is difficult to tell from 
his title what are his duties. In this book whenever the title 
"Division Engineer" is used, it will indicate the engineer who 
reports directly to and receives orders from, the chief engineer; 
also the engineer having charge of constructing the road through 
one or more counties, or some forty or more miles of road. The 
title "Assistant Engineer" will indicate the engineer who re- 
ceives orders from and reports to the * 'Division Engineer"; also 
the engineer who has direct charge of the construction of four to 
six miles of road, depending on the nature of the work. 

(90) 



CONSTRUCTION. 91 

The assistant engineer should be a man who 
has had some practical experience in railroad 
building; he should be gifted with a disposition 
that will enable him to secure obedience with- 
out contention with his assistants or the contrac- 
tors or their employes; he should be competent, 
energetic, sober and reliable. He is generally 
given a rodman and chainman as assistants, both 
of whom must possess a fair education and be 
able to assist in making the calculations both on 
the line and in the office. 

The division engineer is furnished by the chief 
engineer with a complete profile, map and record 
book of his division, and he in turn furnishes this 
data for the section under their jurisdiction to 
each of his assistant engineers. In the record 
books they will find notes of the alignment and 
levels giving all hubs, benches and turning points 
used by the party in the final location. 

The first work of the assistant engineer is to 
check the alignment and see that all hubs and 
stakes are correctly located; also to put in such 
additional hubs as may facilitate work during 
construction* 

The next step is to thoroughly reference all the 
hubs, placing the reference hubs at such points 
as appear least likely to be occupied by the con- 
struction forces for roads, borrowpits, runways, 
etc.^ 

■^Reference hubs should be placed at equal distances on each 
side of center line, usually at right angles, from 50 to 75 feet out. 
It is also a good plan to place hubs about a foot bade of cross- 
section stakes and points at the mouth of cuts about a foot below 
grade, at points on low fills, etc. 



92 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 

The levels must now be re-run, checking both 
the benches and elevation of the ground; new 
and additional benches must be established look- 
ing to security of location as in the case of refer- 
ence hubs, especially will they be needed at 
grades of heavy cuts where they will be used 
often, at streams where bridge piers are to be 
built, etc. 

The width of cuts and fills having been decided 
upon, the work of staking out for excavation and 
em.bankments will be proceeded with.* 

From the profile of the location the division 
engineer decides where the work shall be com- 
menced, which is often at a point where heavy 
work is required; or, perhaps, if the season is dry, 
a marsh or swamp; or a rocky and difficult place 
which must be graded in order to enable the 
forces to get at work laying beyond it, etc. The 
assistant engineers commence cross-sectioning 
these points, and then extend their work to the 
points next to be occupied by the contractors 
until the entire work is cross-sectioned or staked 
out. The notes of cross-sectioning made in the 
field may be kept in the form. Fig 26. 

In calculating quantities of excavation and 
embankment several methods are in vogue, some 
aiming to approximate the prismoidal formula 
and to compensate for curvature; the general 
practice, is, however, that known as averaging 



*The various standards for roadbed, tracic bridges, etc., are 
discussed in another chapter, only the actual work of construc- 
tion being considered here. 



C0N8TBUGTI0N. 



93 



STATION 


BACK 
SIGHT 


H£rCHT 
mSJRUMEH 


POR£ 
SIGHT 


£LEVATlOr\ 
CRfiOi 


car OR riLL on thc 
LETT or CENTERUHi 


CUT OR FILLON THE 
RICHT OF C£NT€RLIN£ 


too 


500 00 

S ZS 


SOS 25 




500 00 


*rto 6o -3|o -'Its ■ rTo 


lOi 








499S0 


•M ^ ■^ 


o -M -^ 


*so 


2 60 


SO' 35 


6 50 




£L£V or r P ^98 7.- 


lOZ 








499 00 


f? -^ -. 


o -i5 -M 


























































LCf 


T n 


1A,0 


PACL^ 




RiChT /f'/lN 


PAC£ 

















Fig. 26. 

FORM OF CROSS SECTION BOOK. 

end areas; form Fig. 2 6 A, can be used in this 
connection: 



STATION 


AREAS Sa» FT. 


aUANTlTlES CU. YDS 


R€MARI<.^*' 


EXCAMATION 


EMBANKMENT 


EXCAVATION 


EMBANKMEkil 






























































• 





























































Fig. 26A. 

FORM OF QUANTITY BOOK. 

While the assistant engineers are testing and 
revising the alignment and levels and starting 



94 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

the cross-sectioning, the division engineer will be 
examining the country to the right and left of 
the line to ascertain the area and nature of the 
territory to be drained, and thus be enabled to 
decide on the size of openings for bridges, cul- 
verts, etc. At this time he will also decide on 
the changes, if any, to be made in water courses, 
ravines, etc., to reduce the number and size of 
openings, if possible."^ 

In deciding upon the size of openings the en- 
gineer must rely on his local knowledge; he must 
take into account the height of freshets, the 
cross-sections of streams at high water and the 
rate of fall of streams or valleys. This is one of 
the engineers perplexing problems; he does not 
want to have embankments washed out after the 
road is opened for business; neither does he 
want to build unnecessary bridges. The best he 
can do in a new country is to compare his opin- 
ion with the data given and size recommended 
by the engineer on location and preliminary sur- 
vey, and act upon his best judgment. 

The division engineer prepares a bill of ma- 
terial for all bridges and openings on his division 
and gives the location of each; these he sends to 
the chief engineer so that the material can be 
forwarded without delay. 

*There are engineers who use a formula to determine the size 
of openings for culverts and bridges, based on the area drained; 
as, however, the slope of the area drained, the porosity of the 
soil and other variable or unknown quantities cannot be taken 
into account in any formula, it is of doubtful value. The subject 
is one about which little is known even for cities where the size 
of sewers depends on it, and a formula good for one locality is 
worthless for another. 



CONSTRUCTIOJS , 95 

The first work of the contractor is to clear and 
grub the right of way; stumps and logs are re- 
moved from under embankments, but where the 
embankment is to be more than three feet in 
height, no grubbing will be required, cutting the 
stump off close to the ground will suffice. 

The estimates for material for track, bridges 
required to be erected by false work, buildings, 
shops, etc., are made in the chief engineer's office, 
and th^ division engineer often has nothing to do 
with such work except to give track centers over 
his division. 

At the point or points where the new line con- 
nects with a railroad, material yards are estab- 
lished, and in these the material for track, build- 
ings and bridges, etc., is assembled, each kind of 
material being piled separately."^ 

The methods adopted by contractors to do the 
grading depend, of course, on the nature of the 
material and the size of the cuts and fills. 

Where embankments are light, i. e., fills not 
over ten feet, the material is generally taken 
from borrowpits on each side of the embankment 
leaving a bermef of not less than five feet be- 
tween the bottom of the slope and the borrowpit. 
In this class of work the earth in the borrowpits 



*It sometimes occurs that material for large trestles or false 
w^orks, or for use in cases where a number of streams cross the 
line close together, is hauled across the country from some other 
railroad to the place where it is to be used thus enabling the 
work to be done ahead of the tracklayers and so preventing 
delay. 

tThe *'berme" is the space between the base of an embank- 
ment and the inside edge of the side ditch. 



90 



BUILDING AND BE PAIRING llAILWAYS. 



is loosened with a plow, and drag or wheel 
scrapers are used to haul it to place. (See Figs. 
27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, U.y 




Fig. 27. 

GRADERS' PL.OW. 




Fig. 28. 

DRAG SCRAPER. 



*There is being introduced for this class of work machines 
known as "elevator graders and ditchers." Tliese machines are 
drawn by six or more horses, and in suitable earth excavate the 
material in the borrowpit, elevate it and dump it in the embank- 
ment or into wagons (see Figs. 36 and 37.) The objection to mak- 
ing embankments direct from borrowpits with this machine is 
that the earth is loose in the embankment, and, consequently, 
great shrinkage ensues. Where, however, the machine loads 
wagons and they haul the dirt to the embankments this objec- 
tion is removed. Embankments four to six feet high have been 
successfully made with this machine by having teams pulling 
harrows and rollers on the embankment to pulverize and com- 
press the earth delivered on the embankment by the machine. 



r I 



CONSTRUCTION. 




Fig. 29. 

DRAG SCRAPER WITH RUNNERS 




Fig. 30. 

DRAG SCRAPER WITH BOTTOM PLATE. 



97 




Fig. 31. 

BACK SCRAPER. 



/ Vol. 13 



S8 BUILDING AND liEPAIBING RAILWAYS. 




Fm. 32. 

TWO-WHEELED SCRAPER. 




END CATC CtoaCO. 



Fig. 33. 

TWO- WHEELED SCBAPER. 



CONSTRUCTION. 



99 




End gate open. 

Fig. 34. 

TWO-WHEELED SCRAPER. 




Fig. 36. 

SIDE VIEW OF GRADER DITCHER AND WAGON LOADER. 

LOFC, 



100 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 




Fig. 37. 

REAR VIEW OF GRADER DITCHER AND WAGON LOADER. 



Heavy fills are generally made wholly from 
material excavated close by, but v^here the loca- 
tion has been made with the view of avoiding cuts 
as much as possible, the heavy fills will have to 
be made with material from borrowpits. In this 
case the bottom is put in with material borrowed 
on each side of the road and at the point of 
heavy fill; the top is made with material bor- 
rowed at the end near grade and hauled out on the 
top of the embankment and is built up in lifts of 
two or three feet at a time; the top material 
for the embankment is taken from the cut at the 
end, which is widened or used as a borrowpit on 
the side from which snow will come. Where the 
length of haul is considerable, four-wheeled 
scrapers, wagons and carts are used (see Figs. 39 
to 44.) 



CONSTBUGTION. 



101 




Fig. 39. 



FOUR-WHEELED SCRAPER IN POSITION FOR LOADING 
FRONT PAN. 




Fig. 40. 

POUR-WHEELED SCRAPER. REAR PAN DUMPED. 



102 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAT8. 




Fig. 41. 

TWO- WHEELED DUMP CART. 




Fig. 42. 

END DUMP WAGON. 



i 



CONSTRUCTION, 



103 




Fia. 43. 

BOTTOM DUMP WAGON. 




Fig. 44. 

IRON END DUMP CARTo 



Embankments must be built up regularly, and 
carried up their full width as they progress, to 
ensure uniform settlement. The degree of settle- 



104 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

ment of an embankment is an uncertain quantity, 
depending on the kind of material and the state 
of the weather when the work was done; if wet, 
the embankment will be more compact than if 
the weather was dry. The manner of doing the 
work also affects sattlement, thus, if embank- 
ments are put up wholly with drag scrapers from 
the sides they will be the most compact; if put 
up by wheel scrapers from the side they will be 
less compact, while the poorest embankment is 
made by wagons and carts hauling from a cut or 
borrowpit at one end and building the bank in 
lifts of two or three feet at a time, the empty 
wagons returning on the top of the embankment. 
Wagon and cart embankments settle the most. 

Frosted or frozen material, especially clay, 
should never be put in an embankment, unless 
provision is made to meet excessive and uneven 
settlement under the tracks afterwards. In case 
frozen clay is used, the embankment is liable to 
slide out laterally when thawing takes place. 
Stumps, logs and brush should never be allowed 
in an embankment. 

The matter of providing for shrinkage on a 
new bank is largely one of individual opinion, 
based on experience. A good practice is to build 
the embankment so as to allow a shrinkage of 
one-tenth, i. e., an embankment in a ten-foot fill 
should be built eleven feet high. The bank 
should be the full width at the top and carried 
out full to the slope stakes at the base, and no 
sags should appear in the slope between the top 
or grade and foot of slope. In Fig. 45 the dotted 



CONSTRUCTION. 105 

lines show how contractors will skimp an em- 
bankment w^here material is scarce, the haul 



Fig. 45. 

Embankment; built full width at grade and out to the slope stakes, 

long, or the embankment high. Particular care 
must be taken at the bridges to have the ends of 
embankment, and also the slopes full. A good 
practice is to get more earth into an embank- 
ment than the section requires, especially at 
bridges, thus allowing for shrinkage and washing 
down of material. It must always be borne in 
mind that the cheapest material put in an em- 
bankment is that put in by the contractor before 
the track is laid, though this can be carried to 
extremes and be made to unduly increase the 
cost. 

The material should be paid for as measured 
in excavation, and this is not only fairer, but 
makes the contractors' interests correspond large- 
ly with those of the owners. 

In cases where an embankment has no open- 
ings through it except arched culverts and cast 
iron pipe drains, the addition of one-tenth per 
foot for shrinkage, as indicated, will increase the 
grade gradually at one end of the cut and de- 
crease it gradually at the other, but this will cause 



lOG BUILDING AND ME PAIRING RAILWAYS. 

no inconvenience in operating trains. Where, 
however, there is an opening for a bridge, trestle 
or open culvert, the structure must be put at the 
established grade, and the embankment sloped 
off gently at each approach, so that trains will 
not drop suddenly from the embankment on to 
the bridge. The practice of building an embank- 
ment with shrinkage added and then putting the 
bridge to a grade to correspond with the top oi 
the embankment as built, is faulty; the effect is 
to change the grade permanently and lose the 
object sought in giving shrinkage to the embank- 
ment. 

Cuts are not handled by contractors in the 
same way as embankments; their methods vary 
according to the kind of material to be handled; 
whether the material must be placed in embank- 
ment or wasted; and the ingenuity of the con- 
tractor. 

Contractors prefer, as a rule, to waste the ma- 
terial near the center of cuts, where the cuts are 
light and the material from borrowpits is conveni- 
ent to the embankment. Engineers on the other 
hand may wish the excavated material all placed 
in the embankment rather than unnecessarily 
disfigure the landscape in a thickly settled coun- 
try ; they may decide it is cheaper to pay over- 
haul ^ when necessary, than purchase extra right 
of way for borrowpits; or they may not wish 
the material wasted on the sides of cuts where 
the soil is liable to slide back into the cut or in- 



*The term "overhaul" is used to designate the length of haul 
in excess of the agreed length of free haul. 



II 



CONSTRUCTION, 



107 



terfere with surface drainage. The length he 
has to haul material is a vital point with the con- 
tractor. The length of free haul that the con- 




FiG. 46. 

RIGHT AND LEFT HAND DUMP CARS. 




Fig. 48. 

ROTARY DUMP CAR. 

tractor must perform is decided upon in advance, 
and is known at the time the work is bid upon; 
a price is also agreed upon for each 100 feet that 
material is hauled in excess of the free haul.* 



*The length of free haul is different with different roads, but 
one thousand feet is often adopted. 



108 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

Earth cuts are handled in much the same man- 
ner as described for excavations for borrowpits. 
For large earth cuts the contractor often lays a 
narrow gauge track, and conveys the material in 
dump carts hauled by horses or a steam engine, 
as shown in Figs. 46, 48 and 49. The earth is 




Fig. 49. 

VIEW SHOWING THE METHOD OF DUMPING A 
ROTARY DUMP CAR. 

excavated and loaded into the cars by picks and 
shovels or steam shovels, according to the extent 
of the cut (see Figs. 51 and 54). Where loose 
rock is encountered the work is conducted in 
much the same manner as earth. Hard pan is a 
cemented gravel, and is found in all stages of 
hardness from earth to solid rock; however, the 
latter occurs but seldom. It occurs sometimes 
in mass and again in veins from a few inches to 
several feet thick; as generally found it can be 
broken up with a specially designed plow (see 



110 BUILDING AND HEP AIMING EAILWATS. 

Fig. 55). If it is extremely hard, it is often 
blasted by explosives, but it does not break up 




Fig. 54. 

STEAM SHOVEL CAR. 




Fig. 55. 

HARD PAN PLOW. 



well; it ''blows out," to use a grader's expressioUj 
in ''hatfulls." It is sometimes removed by steam 
shovels where the deposit is large enough to war- 
rant one being installed. Solid rock excavation 



CONSTRUCTION. Ill 

affords the contractor opportunity to exhibit his 
skill; a cut which has been cross-sectioned for 
earth when solid rock is encountered, must be 
re-cross-sectioned for rock. (See Fig. 56.) 




Fig. 56. 

SHOWING THE SLOPES FOR AN EARTH CUT. 

The dotted lines show the slopes for an earth cut. The full lines show the 

slopes for a rock and earth cut. 

The methods adopted for removing rock from 
excavation may be stated in a general way as 
follows: Blasting with powder or any other con- 
venient explosive, and reducing large pieces by 
block holes and small charges."^ 

It is often found cheaper to use explosives 
plentifully and blow the upper part of the cut 
out beyond the slopes, so it does not have to be 
handled, t 



*The better way and cheaper is to arrange a ginpole or cheap 
derrick in the cut, and hoist the large pieces on to a dump cart 
frame, of which the sides are removed, and only break up the 
extremely large pieces by block holes and blasting. 

fAn extreme case of handling rock in this way occurred some 
years ago. Galleries were blasted out in the cut as in a mine, 
and a carload of powder used at one charge, blowing practically 
all the rock to be excavated beyond the slopes. 



112 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

Where explosives have been used freely to 
break the mass of rock, steam shovels are some- 
times used to load the broken mass on cars. The 
cars, carts, and wagons mentioned and illustrated 
are used in handling rock. 

When building an embankment with rock, it 
is generally safe to calculate that the material in 
the embankment will occupy twenty-five per 
cent, more space than it did in the cut; it is also 
safe to use slopes of one and one-quarter horizon- 
tal to one vertical. But great care must be taken 
in building the embankment to keep the slopes 
at both the end and on the sides of the dump as 
even as practicable, so that the stones when 
dumped do not catch on each other and form 
holes thus honeycombing the bank. Should this 
take place it is liable to cause settlement of the 
bank under the track; if it is on the slope the 
stones will in time slip and take their natural 
position causing the side of the bank to slide from 
under the track. To prevent this long poles 
must be kept at a convenient place on the dump 
to be used by men standing to one side of the 
rocks lodged on the slope and bear them down 
without being themselves in the line of the slid- 
ing rock. This provision must be made when 
large masses are put in the damp, but it is not so 
necessary when stone is loaded in carts and cars 
by hand. 

Rock dumps should not be brought to grade, 
but should be built to within three feet of grade 
and stone placed by hand to fill the openings; 
this should be followed by a course of smaller 



CONSTRUCTION. 113 

stone, and on this should be placed spauls* to 
bring the embankment to grade. 

Tunnels should be avoided wherever possible; 
they are expensive to construct and maintain. 
The alignment requires great care in the instru- 
ment work, and a high grade transit must be 
used. While it is not always possible to lay a 
tangent through a tunnel, yet curves should not 
be used until it has been thoroughly demon- 
strated that a tangent is not possible without 
greatly increased cost; there should never be a 
level grade through a tunnel. In the construc- 
tion of a short tunnel, the drilling can be done 
by hand at less expense than by compressed air 
drills. The conditions met with are so various 
and call for so many different methods to over- 
come the difficulties that no attempt is made 
here to go into detail.f 

In a general way, however, it may be stated 
that the methods of excavating are as follows: 

a. Excavation may begin at the bottom and 
proceed upward, or, 

h. Excavation may begin at the top and pro- 
ceed downward. 

c. The entire area of the tunnel may be ex- 
cavated. 

d, A heart, kernel or core may be left stand- 
ing. The methods of timbering may differ, as 
for instance: 



■'^^'Spauls'* are the small stones produced by blasting or the 
larger stones broken by sledges. 

fFor more exhaustive information the reader is referred to 
the work on tunneling by Henry S. Drinker, E. M. 

8 Vol. 13 



114 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 



e. The tunnel may be supported by rafter tim- 
bering, or, 
/. Longitudinal bar timbering may be used 




Fig. 61. 

EXAMPLE OF CRISTINA METHOD OF TUNNELING. 

The manner of building the masonry may differ, 
thus: 

q. The masonry may be begun at the founda- 
tions and the abutments erected before the arch, 
or, 



CONSTRUCTION. 115 

h. The arch may be turned first and the abut- 
ments built last. 

The engineer in charge of a tunnel must keep 
constantly in mind that there is always a pres- 
sure, more or less great, on the false work ex- 
erted by the material composing the hill or 
mountain in all directions — bottom, top and 
sides. In Europe there are five general methods 
used to support the roof of the tunnel during 
construction; they are known as the English, 
Belgian, German, Austrian and Cristina. The 
last has been used by Italian engineers in the 
Alps, and is fairly illustrated by Fig. 61. The 
other European methods have as many timber 
braces, etc., but the arrangement is different; the 
reader is referred to the work mentioned previ- 
ously for the details of them. 

One of the methods adopted in America is il- 
lustrated in Fig. 62. It was used on the Cincin- 
nati Southern Railway. Air compressors and 
drills are illustrated by Figs. 63 and 65. 

To hasten the construction of tunnels, shafts 
are often sunk and the work carried on from both 
sides of the shaft. Where shafts are used or at 
the end of a tunnel where the grade descends 
into the tunnel, pumping plants of liberal capac- 
ity must be installed to enable the working head 
to be relieved promptly of water, should a large 
quantity be encountered. The masonry will con- 
sist of the foundation, invert, abutments and 
arch; they must be of the best material and work- 
manship, laid with thin joints and paralleled 
beds or courses. The backing must be thorough- 



116 BUILBINO AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 




CONSTRUCTION. 



117 



ly rammed between the rock or soil and the ma- 
sonry, so that the pressure will be uniformly 




Fig. 63. 

AIR COMPRESSOR. 




Fig. 65. 

ROCK DRILLS FOR TUNNEL WORK. 

distributed over the masonry. Openings must be 
left in the masonry for drainage, and recesses 



118 BUILDING AND RE PAIRING RAILWAYS, 

must be made at intervals for workmen to use 
when trains are passing through the tunnel. If 
the tunnel is long, provision must be made for 
ventilation; this is a difficult problem, and the 
methods tried have been numerous, such as shafts, 
a division of a double track tunnel by a parti- 
tion, stacks with a fire at the base, blowers op- 
erated by steam, compressed air or water power. 
Fig. 68 illustrates the method of ventilating the 
Mont Cenis Tunnel. 

Attempts have been made in Europe to use 
iron framing to support the roofs of tunnels, also 
for centers for the masonry; the methods are 
known as the Menne and Rziha Systems. The 
inventors claim they are successful, but while 
timber is plentiful in America, these systems are 
not likely to be extensively used. 

The Detroit River Tunnel for the Michigan 
Central Railroad is a case in which the tunnel 
was excavated by the use of a shield and com- 
pressed air, and the tunnel lined with cast iron 
made in segments of a circle and bolted together 
as put in position. 

Earth banks, at all openings, bridges, cross- 
ings of streams and places where the water at 
any stage of a stream or river reaches the em- 
bankment should be protected by rip rap;^ 
the amount of rip rap used need not be alike in 
all cases, but a good failing and one not often 
made is to have too much. This rip rap should 
be a good hard stone of the largest size that can 

* **Rip rap" consists of broken stone placed on an earth bank 
to protect it from the wash of a stream or the action of waves. 



CONSTRUCTION. 119 

be handled, and should at no place be less than 
two feet thick measured at right angles to the 
slope. 

Where a railroad parallels a river which is sub- 
ject to ice gorges and the ice floes are large, 
the rip rap should not be less than three feet 
thick, measured at right angles to the slope; in 
such cases, however, the opinions of experienced 
men differ regarding the size of rock to use.^ 

Retaining walls should never be built too light. 
A safe practice is to make a retaining wall three 
feet thick at the top and batter the face three 
inches to the foot, or offs'et the back one foot to 
each four feet of height. Thus, a retaining wall 
fifteen and one-half feet high would be six feet 
ten and one-half inches thick at the base where 
the batter is made on the face, and where it is 
built by offsets on the back it would be six 
feet thick at the base and three feet thick at the 
top under the coping (see Figures 69 and 70). 

*A case in point was where a large river in the Atlantic Coas : 
States of North America was paralleled on one side by a canal, 
and on the other side by a railroad. The railroad company used 
large stone hoisted on to dump carts by a derrick for the rip rap 
with the interstices filled with smaller stone. The canal com- 
pany used for rip rap what is known by quarrymen as "one and 
two men stone" dumped without placing by hand. During an 
ice jam in the river, the railroad embankments at numerous 
points were carried away by the ice floes catching on the large 
rock and carrying the rock out of position. The action of the 
ice on the canal embankments was to displace the small stone 
where the large floes struck it, and the stone above at once slid 
down and replaced those carried away; the canal embankments 
were not damaged to nearly as great an extent as those of the 
railroad. The theory of the Superintendent of the canal was 
''small stone make the best rip rap to stand an ice jam if you have 
enough of them.'' 



120 BUILDING AND BE PAIRING RAILWAYS. 

Openings should be made in the wall to ai'ow 
water to escape, if there is any indication of its 
being likely to collect behind the retaining wall. 
Figure 71 shows how contractors will take out a 
cut if not looked after. 

Drainage is one of the main features the engi- 




Fig. 68. 



VENTILATION OF MT. CENIS TUNNEL. 



neer must keep in mind; he must never loi^e an 
opportunity to get a dry road bed; all cuts should, 
therefore, l3e made with a grade through them; 
the character of the material through which a cut 
is made must carefully be examined, for if a water 
bearing strata of clay or gravel exists, prompt meas - 



CONSTRUCTION. 



121 



ures must be taken to prevent slides. This is done 
sometimes by making trenches up the slope at 
intervals through the cut and filling these trenches 



S'-o" -^ 



z\ 



vfe, 









Ki 



(r 



6^0 > 




1^ 3-0" > 



i '/oyt. 



] 



Tigs. 69 and 70. 

RETAINING WALLS. 



with small stone leading to the side ditches, or, 
better still, by putting in an under drain. Ditches 
well back from the slope must be made to carry 



12'^ BUILDING AND REPAIUING RAILWAYS. 

off the surface water to the end of the cut, and 
not allow it to pass down the slope into the cut. 
Borrowpits must be connected by ditches to give 
drainage to openings, and, where there are no bor- 
rowpits, ditches must be made to protect embank- 
ments from being washed by water coming down 
slopes. Where ditching is resorted to, to reduce 




Fio. 71. 

Showing how a cut can be full width at grade and the material taken out at 
slope stakes and yet all the material will not be excavated. 

openings in embankments, ample bermes must be 
left and the changes in direction made by easy 
curves. Where water is allov/ed to come down 
slopes against an embankment and flow off by a 
ditch through a knoll, the embankment must be 
reinforced by earth and, if possible, stone in suffi- 
cient quantity to keep the embankment from 
being softened by the water standing against it. 



CONSTRUCTION. 123 

It must never be forgotten that a well drained 
roadbed is afEected less by frost in winter, dam- 
aged less in rainy seasons and costs less to keep 
in good order. 

The practice is to use cast iron pipe of the style 
used for water mains in cities, for culverts and 
small pile bent bridges; some roads, however, use 
wrought iron pipe for this purpose. Cast iron is 
admitted to stand corrosion better than iron or 
steel, and in time will probably be used to the 
exclusion of iron or steel riveted pipe. 

Streams of considerable size can be carried 
under or through embankments by using several 
lines of large sized cast iron pipe, and building 
retaining walls of masonry or concrete at each 
end of the culvert. Care must be taken to have 
the earth packed firmly around the pipe and 
against the retaining walls, so that the water will 
be forced to pass through the pipe, and not be per- 
mitted to wash away the embankment. This ap- 
plies with equal force to stone arched and open 
culverts. 

Where stone cannot be secured to pave the 
spillway* at the discharge end of cast iron pipe 
culverts, the original sod must not be disturbed 
for a distance of at least twenty feet on each side 
extending across the entire right of way. This is 
a choice point for the contractor to use for a bor- 
rowpit, and must be looked after closely. 

Spillways and spaces between the walls of stone 
arched culverts and open culverts must be care- 
fully paved with stone not less than eighteen 

*A * 'spillway" is the outlet of a culvert or drain. 



124 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 

inches long, set on end and close together, the in- 
terstices being filled with spauls. 

All open culverts, bents of pile and trestle 
bridges and abutments of bridges should be at 
right angles to the track. If for any reason this 
cannot be done, the bridge seat must be so arranged 
that the end of the bridge will be at right angles 
to the track. 

The location of the bents for pile and trestle 
bridges must be carefully made; this requires 
the center line of the railroad to be given for each 
bent, the axis of the bent transversely to the line 
of the railroad; and these points must be carefully 
referenced by hubs which will not be destroyed 
by contractors, workmen or timber haulers. In 
giving the location for driving the piling and the 
cut off for the piling, the work must be done de- 
liberately and carefully, and all work of line and 
elevation re-run and checked. 

Bridge abutments and piers require the greatest 
care in location; steel tapes only should be used, 
and they should be used with a spring balance. 
The tape should be stretched on a level piece of 
ground to the same tension and two hubs driven 
at the distance measured on the sight of the bridge 
and the distance measured between the hubs. 
Generally the length of spans is decided upon first. 
In such case the length of the spans should be 
carefully measured on level ground and hubs 
driven at the proper distances, and the measure- 
ment with a long steel tape and balance taken in 
the reverse order mentioned. Where the streams 
are of considerable width, the piers will have to 



CONSTRUCTION, 



125 



be located by triangulation, using a high grade 
transit for the purpose. 

The foundations for pile and trestle bridges are 
secured by driving piles in the ground and sawing 




Fig. 72. 

STEAM PILE DRIVER. 



them ofE at the proper elevations for the caps of 
pile bridges and sills of trestle bridges; figure 
72 gives a view of a pile-driver. The experience 
of the engineer is called into play to decide when 



126 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

a pile has been driven sufficiently; the timber 
in a pile can be shattered by over-driving 
so it will possess very little strength to 
support a load; neither will it support the 
load if not driven sufficiently. Rules are 
given by Trautwine, Wellington and others re- 
garding this subject; a rule much in use is to stop 
driving when six blows with a two-thousand 
pound hammer falling a distance of twenty feet 
fail to drive the pile over one inch. This rule, 
however, must be used with judgment. There 
have been cases where piles would settle a foot 
at each drop of the hammer, and, if left over 
night, they could not be started by the hammer, 
and yet these piles are today successfully support- 
ing heavy trains on a trunk line.* Again there 
are frequent cases where piling could not be 
secured of sufficient length to reach the bottom 
of the soft strata of cedar and tamarack swamps 
where the material did not possess the property 
of closing around a pile and supporting it as in 
the preceding case. In such cases the support for 
the roadbed has been secured by laying long logs 
transversely to the line of the road close to- 
gether, and building an embankment on them.f 
There are yet other cases where the soil is of a 
nature that durmg a prolonged season of dry, hot 
weather the soil becomes so hard that a pile is 
with difficulty driven into it, yet during the rainy 
season this soil becomes soft and spongy. Great 

*This case was in marshy ground where quick sand settling 
around the pile gave it the necessary support. 
tThis is known as corduroying a swamp. 



CONSTRUCTION. 127 

difficulty is encountered in such soils to get the 
piling down a sufficient depth during dry weather 
to support the load during wet seasons and not 
shatter the pile by overdriving. 

The foundations for abutments and piers are 
secured in a number of ways; in a general way 
they can be given as follows: 

(a) Where a pier is built outside of a stream 
during low water the earth is excavated below the 
water line, or to the rock; the water is kept out 
by pumps; where rock is not reached or a firm 
soil capable of bearing a weight of four to five 
tons per square foot, piling is driven, the tops 
sawed off and a timber grillage* built on top to 
carry the masonry. Recently a mass of concrete 
about six feet thick, in which the tops of the pil- 
ing project three feet, has been used instead of 
timber grillage. 

{h) Where a pier is located in a stream of mod- 
erate depth of water, sheet piling is driven in two 
rows around the foundation, and the space tilled 
with clay and rammed tight and the foundation 
secured as described above. In greater depth of 
water, piling is driven and the tops sawed off level 
at or near the bed of the stream, and a caisson 
sunk on to the piling and the masonry built in the 
caisson. Where the bed of the stream is rock, 
the foundation has been secured by making the 
bottom of the caisson to correspond with the ir- 
regularities of the rock and sinking the caisson 

^"Grillage" consists of square timbers placed on top of the 
piling to distribute the weight of the masonry evenly on each 
pile. 



128 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

directly on to the rocky bed of the stream. 
Where there is great depth of water or an allu- 
vial formation subject to changes of channel by 
floods, the pneumatic caisson is resorted to. * 

All piers and abutments require rip rapping and 
other necessary measures taken to protect them 
from damage by ice where the stream is subject 
to ice jams. 

The masonry for piers, abutments and culverts, 
need not be of a quality known as first-class; but 
it must be well bedded and bonded and built 
solid, no voids being allowed. The bonding must 
apply to the backing as well as the face stone, so 
as to approach as near as possible to a monolith. 
The stone used should be large and the coping 
thick, and of a quality which will not deteriorate 
on exposure to the weather, or crush under the 
weight which it will have to support. 

Where a stream is shallow, and subject to sud- 
den overflow and drift, which would carry away 
false work, low water tracks are used to extend the 
road. These low water tracks leave the located 
line at each'side of the valley and when possible are 
laid parallel to and a sufficient distance from the 
located line, so that they can be used to deliver ma- 
terial required for constructing the bridge. The low 
water track is carried across the steam on a low 
trestle securely anchored to the bed of the stream 
so that when a rise in the river takes place it will 
not be washed away. This low water track per- 
mits the rapid extension of the line and gives 

♦This is a large subject and the reader is referred ito the liter- 
ature treating of it mentioned hereafter. 



CONSTRUCTION. 129 

facilities to forward track and construction ma 
terial, and it has even been used in operating the 
road for some months before the bridging was 
completed. High water in streams of this nature 
seldom interferes with the operating of trains for 
more than a few hours at a time, and the drift 
would carry away any trestle bridge or false work 
which obstructs the stream. 

The approach to a bridge from a new bank 
should be supported on a mud sill; after the em- 
bankment has fully settled, piling or masonry 
can be used to replace the mud sill as desired. 
Masonry can be saved by omitting an abutment 
and making the approach to the first pier on a 
trestle, or better still, a plate girder. 

The grade must be surfaced true before ballast 
is put on; or for track, if the ballasting is to be 
done after track laying. For this purpose the 
engineers give center and grade stakes, the grade 
stakes being placed every one hundred feet on 
tangents, and every fifty feet on curves. Two 
grade stakes are required for each center stake; 
one five feet each side of the center; on curves 
the grading should be made to conform to the 
elevation to be given the outer rail. The inside 
grade stake to he depressed as much below the 
grade line as the elevation to be given the outer 
rail, and the outside grade stake to he 7'aised the 
same amount."^ 

Monthly estimates are made as the work prog- 

*This is the method adopted by one of the Eastern Trunk 
Lines of North America and is believed by some to cause a train 
to ride more evenly when entering and leaving a curve. 

9 Vol. 13 



130 BUILDING AND REP AIMING RAILWAYS. 



resses and progress profiles made, showing the 
work done both in excavation and embankment. 
The resident engineer takes account of the num- 
ber of men, teams, etc., in each gang as he passes 
over the work daily and makes a monthly report, 
as per accompanying form (7 2 A), to the division 



Columbian /?? Co. S>tockdale Br^^nch 

FORCE REPORT FOR THE MONTH OF ISO 

THE FOLLOWINO NUMBERS OP MEN,TEflM6.£TC REPRESENT THE AI4QUNT WORK\NG,ONE DAf. 


1 


^ 2 






to 


! 


i 
1 


REMARKS. 



































































































































Fig. 72A. 

FORM OP FORCE REPORT. 

engineer. * At the end of each month the resident 
engineer gives line and grade over all work done 
during the current month, and the division en- 
gineer goes over the work and takes notes of the 
stations between which work has been done dur- 
ing the current month. The record he keeps is 
in the following form (72B). 

The resident engineer furnishes the quantities 

*This report is generally called a "force report.'* 



CONSTRUCTION. 



131 



in a report to the division engineer, and he com- 
pares their quantities with those calculated in his 
office from the center heights and slope of the 
ground and with the force account. 

The division engineer forwards the estimates 
for sections and also the force account for sec- 
tions to the chief engineer, who compares them 
with the data secured from the preliminary survey 



OJLeZi^<TyL 



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n- /^^^Q 



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Fig. 72B. 

FORM OF ESTIMATE BOOK. 

and location and what is being accomplished by 
similar gangs of men on other divisions. By this 
method all parties are protected from charges of 
favoritism, and anyone returning the wrong quan- 
tities will be discovered; where the surveys have 
been made as outlined previously, the chief en- 
gineer has the means of determining the approx- 
imate quantities and classification. 

The subject of classification of material is one 



132 BUILDING AND IlEPAIItlNO RAILWAYS. 

about which no two engineers will give the same 
decision, though they may not materially differ. 
There is no clearly marked line between earth and 
loose rock, or earth and hard pan, and there are 
cases where it is a question whether it is loose 
rock or solid rock. The method of estimating 
given here enables a second engineer to examine 
the work and intelligently criticise the opinion of 
the one making the estimate. The manner of 
estimating and calculating quantities varies with 
different roads. There have been cases where 
the resident engineer cross-sectioned the work, 
and each month made a report that the work was 
completed between given stations. The quanti- 
ties were calculated at the office of a division 
engineer, and also the estimates made at the 
same office from the notes of the resident en- 
gineer. Under this method the resident engineer 
can look after a longer residency; but the force 
in the division engineer's office is increased and 
the advantage of a check on estimates between 
the two offices is lost. 

Bon'owpits should be cross-sectioned both be 
fore work is commenced and after its comple- 
tion. 

The amount to be paid for overhaul is calculated 
differently on different systems. The method 
generally adopted is to ascertain the free haul 
lirst, and then ascertain the center of mass in the 
cut beyond the free haul, and the center of mass 
in the fill beyond the free haul. The distance A. 
B. (see Fig. 73) less the free haul is the length of 
the overhaul, and the cubic yards of the mass C. 



CONSTRUCTION. 



133 



D. E. and F. in the excavation is the amount 
hauled. Another method is to find the center of 
mass of the entire amount in the excavation 



JJ-5-r«r.ec A^e_ r-t 



Fig. 73. 

VIEW OVERHAUL. 



hauled into the embankment, and the center of 
mass in the embankment (see Fig. 74). From 
this distance A. B. deduct the length of free haul 







Fig. 74. 

VIEW OVERHAUL 

and use for the amount overhauled the entire 
amount taken out of the excavation. 

Pipe culverts are paid for by a price per ton 
miles hauled, and a price per ton for placing, and 
the excavation for bedding them. 



134 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

Stone arched and open culverts are paid for at 
a price per cubic yard for the excavation for 
foundation, and the masonry; the paving is paid 
for by the square yard of surface paved. 

Bridging with timber is estimated as follows: 

Piling is estimated at the length swung into the 
leads where the railroad company furnishes the 
bill of material and specifies the length of piling; 
otherwise the contractor is paid for the length of 
piling from the point to cutoff. Square timber is es- 
timated by the number of feet, board measure, in 
the completed structure; a different price is paid 
for pine and oak, the quantities of each being 
kept separate. Iron such as bolts, spikes and 
other wrought iron is estimated by the pound, 
and cast iron washers and spreaders the same 
way. False work is sonietimes included in the 
price for an iron or steel bridge; in cases where 
the railroad company puts it up to get construc- 
tion material to the front, it is estimated the 
same as for wooden bridging but the price may 
be different. Retaining walls are estimated for 
by the cubic yard. Rip rap is estimated for by 
the cubic yard. 

After the completion of the sections, a careful 
final estimate is made, but final payment is gen- 
erally withheld until track is laid over the work. 

Cuts and fills having been made, culverts, 
trestle bridges and false work erected and depot 
grounds graded a sufficient distance from the 
junction with the present railroad, the track lay- 
ing force is in a position to commence work. The 
division engineers at the front estimate the date 



GONSTBUCTION. 



135 



the track layers will reach their respective divis- 
ions, and look over their divisions carefully with 
regard to the amount of material to move, and 
the forces employed in grading and bridging. 
Tardy contractors are urged to greater activity 
and every effort made to secure the completion 
of the grading and bridging before the track lay- 
ing forces arrive. The chief engineer comes out 
over the line to give a personal inspection and 
hurry forward the work on heavy sections. 

The manner in which the track is laid depends 




Fig. 75. 

TRACK LAYING OR IRON CAR. 

on the length of the new road and the character 
of the country. One method is as follows: A 
construction train brings the material to the front, 
and the ties are unloaded and hauled forward 
with teams, and placed on the grade; the rails 
are brought to the front on the cars which were 
used to bring them from the material yard. The 
necessary quantities of fishplates, bolts and spikes 
are placed on each car to lay the rails contained 
on the car. The rails are drawn over the end of 
the car and placed on a track-laying or iron car 



136 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 

(see Fig. 75). This car is pushed forward as fast 
as the rails are laid, the joints are half bolted and 
the rails quarter spiked; when the last pair of 
rails is drawn off the iron car, the engine pushes 
forward the train of construction material, and the 
iron car is reloaded. This operation is repeated 
until the head car of the construction train has 
been unloaded of rails, when the entire train is 
taken back to its siding and the empty car left 
there, and the next car loaded with rails becomes 
the first or head car next to the iron car. * While 
the above is being done a gang of men is placing 
the splices or fishplates, bolts, nuts, nutlocks, and 
spikes. Another gang is throwing off the ties as 
fast as the teams can haul them ahead, and wher- 
ever the grade will permit, the ties are loaded 
direct from the cars to the wagons. By this 
method the ties are not hauled over five hundred 
feet. Behind the construction train is a gang of 
men completing the spiking. An average of one 
mile per day has been made in a good country by 
this method. The construction train at the front 
is made up as follows: The front cars are loaded 
with rails, splices, bolts and spikes, there being a 
sufficient number of cars to contain the necessary 
material for one day's work. Behind the iron 

♦Where the run to a side track is too long and will cause de- 
lay in delivering track material to the track layers, two iron cars 
are used and the rails thrown from the cars to the ground along 
side of the construction train; the train pulls back and the rails 
are loaded on the iron car, the loaded iron car is taken to the 
front, the empty one having been taken off the track by being 
turned over and left standing on its side; the construction train 
is then brought forward and another lot of rails thrown off to 
load the second iron car. 



CONSTRUCTION. 137 

cars come the cars loaded with ties; there being 
enough of these also for one day's work; these 
are followed by the boarding cars. By this 
method the only switching required is to set the 
head iron cars as unloaded on the side track. When 
the day's work is completed, the train is hauled 
back to the first siding, and the boarding cars left 
there while the engine takes the empties to the 
material yard and returns with another train load 
for the next day's work. Where the route of the 
new road is in a rough country which will not 
permit the ties to be hauled ahead by teams the 
manner of handling the ties is as follows: Two 
iron cars are used, the first one is loaded with six 
to eight rails and the necessary fastenings, and 
on top of braces placed above the rails are placed 
the necessary ties to support the rails without 
bending them while the construction train passes 
over. This car is pushed to the front by men or 
hauled by horses. While the track material on 
the first car is being laid, the second car is being 
loaded. The empty car is thrown off the track 
and stood on its side to permit the loaded one to 
pass. The ties for the iron car are loaded on the 
car containing the rails in such a manner that the 
rails can be pulled from under them; the ties to 
be placed under the rails after the construction 
train passes over are unloaded as the train pro- 
ceeds. Behind the construction train there is a 
gang placing the ties omitted at the front. This 
gang also finishes the spiking. 

In the construction of track, machines for the 
purpose are used called ''Track Laying Ma- 



135 BUILDING AND BE F AIMING BAILWATS, 



chines." The Holman and the Harris machines 
are the principal ones. The Holman machine 
(see Fig. 76) is composed of a series of tramways 
30 feet long and about 20 inches wide, fitted with 
heavy iron rollers. These tramways are attached 
to the sides of ordinary flat cars, without any 
changes, and are supported by adjustable iron 
stakes that fit into the pockets on the sides of the 




Fig. 76. 

HOLMAN'S TRACK LAYING MACHINE. 

cars, and, being connected, operate the full length 
of the train, the same as one continuous tram- 
way. The ties and rails are thrown upon these 
tramways and rolled down to the front, where 
men receive and place them in position on the 
roadbed. The ties come down on the right hand 
side of the train and the rails on the opposite 
side. On the tie side, a chute, supported by a 
wire cable, runs out thirty-five feet in front of 
the train, which allows the men handling ties 
to be one panel ahead of the men handling rails 



CONSTRUCTION, 139 

and consequently out of each other's way. A 
train of ten cars, viz: six of ties, three of rails 
and the tool car will carry all material required 
for a half -day's work, and from one-half to three- 
fourths of a mile of track. One and one-half miles 
of track per day can be laid with this machine,with 
from forty to fifty men and a capable foreman, 
provided the Railroad Company can deliver the 
material at the front fast enough and in proper 
shape. (Some expert foremen have laid two 
miles of track per day. ) This includes full tieing, 
laying the rails in position, joint, quarter and 
center spiking^ putting on the fishplates or angle- 
bars and two bolts through the same. This leaves 
the track in safe condition for the construction 
train, and the balance of the work is finished be- 
hind the train without reference to or use of the 
machine. As fast as the panels are laid the train 
moves forward, 30 feet at a time, carrying all 
material with it, leaving nothing scattered along 
the line. The main object of the machine is to 
dispense with the use of teams in the distribution 
of material and also to reduce the cost of rail- 
way building. On the Northern Pacific Railroad 
8,400 feet of track was laid in eight hours actual 
working time with one foreman and sixty-six men 
as follows: In front of machine 1 tie man, 8 
tie carriers, 2 bolters, 4 spikers, 1 chute man, 6 
rail carriers and 2 nippers. On train, 2 men 
unloading rails, 2 men pushing rails, 16 men 
handling ties. Behind train, 2 spacers, 8 spikers, 
3 bolters, 4 nippers, 4 liners and 1 peddler. On 
this day the boarding train was about five miles 



140 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 



in the rear; two hours were consumed in going 
to and from work and making up train, leaving 
eight hours actual working time. 

The Harris machine (see Fig. 77) consists of a 




Fig. 77. 

HARRIS' TRACK LAYING MACHINE. 

continuous tramway or track (about eight feet six 
inch gauge) laid and spiked firmly upon the top 
of a construction train of platform cars. Upon 
this tram track runs a small automatic car, de« 
signed for carrying ties. Cast-iron rollers are 
placed in the center of all cars that are used for . 
carrying rails. In fitting up cars for the machine 
five ties (ten and one-half feet long) are fastened 
firmly across each car. Kails are then selected 
from those to be laid in the permanent track, and 
spiked to the ties, thus making a track (eight 
feet six inch gauge) thirty feet long on each car 
of the train; short adjustable pieces of rails are 
placed between each pair of cars to connect the 
permanent rails, and which permit of their easy 
removal after the train has been unloaded, and 
their ready replacement again when the next 
"rain comes to the front. The front or pioneer 
car has a frame work or extension permanently 
fastened to it, which extends the tram track about 



CONSTRUCTION. 14l 

twenty feet ahead of the train. Across the front 
end of these extension timbers is fastened a double 
roller, about one foot lower than the cast-iron 
rollers on the pioneer and construction cars, for 
receiving and carrying the rails after leaving the 
train. The small automatic tie car has a mova- 
ble top which unloads the ties automatically cross- 
ways the roadbed, enough at a time for sixty feet 
of track. Rails are loaded on the forward cars of 
the train, being piled between the cast-iron rollers 
and the tram track, half on each side of the car. 
On each car used for carrying rails sufficient joint 
fastenings, spikes, bolts, etc., are loaded for use 
of the track laying force in front of the train. 
The balance of the materials required to finish 
the track are carried on the tool and supply car 
next to the locomotive, and are distributed from 
this car as required. Ties are loaded crossways 
the rear cars of the train or those nearest the lo- 
comotive. Sufficient ''short rails" for keeping 
joints even on curves are carried on the pioneer 
car, and are always convenient when required. 
When the train arrives at the ''front" it is 
coupled to the pioneer car (which always remains 
at the end of the track). The men, in going for- 
ward from the tool car (where they generally 
ride) drop the short connecting rails into place, 
to make the tram track continuous and the ma- 
chine is ready for work. There is absolutely no 
time lost during the day in getting the machine 
ready for work, or in removing any apparatus 
when the cars are unloaded. Ties enough for 
two lengths of rails, or sixty feet of track, are 



142 BUILDING AND BEPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

loaded upon the automatic tie car and run on the 
continuous track over all the cars of rails to the 
front end of the extension timbers, when the 
front wheels of the car come suddenly in contact 
with the stop block. The top frame of the car 
(which moves on rollers) suddenly darts forward 
and dumps the ties instantly crossways the road- 
bed, and scatters them a distance of from twenty 
to forty-five feet ahead of the last track laid. The 
tie car is immediately run back and reloaded with 
ties, and returns in time for the next sixty feet 
Jayout. The ties are immediately put in their 
right places on the roadbed. Four rails, two for 
each side of the track are bolted together on the 
top of the train, and are run from the rollers of 
the construction cars to the double roller which 
carries them on a down grade until they are re- 
ceived on the roller of a low trestle or ''dolly,'' 
which assists in carrying them on the same de- 
clining grade to the point opposite where they 
are to be laid into the track. The men on the 
ground immediately drop them on the ties and 
heel them into the angle plates (which have been 
fastened loosely to the last rails laid). Three 
ties on tangents and four on curves are quickly 
spiked, and the train moves forward over the 
sixty feet of track just laid. The process is re- 
peated until the work is finished. The balance 
of the spiking, bolting and lining the track is 
performed after the train passes over it. When 
it is desired to lay a track at a speed of two and 
one-fourth or two and one-half miles per day, or 
at a speed of only one or one and one-fourth miles 



CONSTRUCTION. 143 

per day, the above method of working the ma- 
chine is varied somewhat to suit the circum- 
stances. On the Chicago, Kansas & Nebraska 
Railway an average of 2.16 miles of track per day 
was made in laying 288 miles of track. The 
maximum grade was 52 feet per mile. The train 
was made up as follows for one-half day's work 
Harris Track Laying Machine: 

5 cars of steel — 76 rails per car. 
5 cars of ties — 270 ties per car. 

10 cars of ties — for back filling two engines, 
one tool car, one caboose, one car of crossing 
plank, one car of telegraph material. 

The force employed consisted of one foreman 
and 139 men as follows: 

10 men on the cars delivering the ties over the 
front of the machine. 

10 men on the car delivering the steel over the 
front of the machine. 

35 men in front of the machine placing ties, 
handling steel, putting on fishplates (i bolted) 
and spiking two ties to a rail. 

14 men handling ties out of the cars, and on 
the grade, placing them under the steel behind 
the train. 

60 men back spiking and bolting. 
5 men lining track. 
5 men surfacing track. 

The telegraph line was kept up with the track 
layers, poles were placed thirty to a mile; there 
were two wires put up. The force consisted of: 

8 men digging holes. 

3 men setting poles. 



144 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

1 man putting on cross-arms. 

1 man on the train distributing material. 

2 men stringing wires. 

The methods above described are varied 
according to the opinions of track laying fore- 
men; the ties can be hauled by teams if desired 
where either machine is used. The track may be 
only half tied ahead of the construction train 
and other ties put in behind the train; these ties 
can be brought to the front by another train, 
thus lightening the load on a heavy ascending 
grade. The skill of the track laying foreman is 
shown in adapting his appliances to the chang- 
ing physical conditions of the line.* 

A gang surfacing Avith earth or gravel as cir- 
cumstances permit or ballasting and surfacing 
follows the track layers. The details of ballast- 
ing and surfacing and track work in general are 
taken up in another chapter. 

Side tracks for depots should be graded by the 
contractor when grading the main line, and the 
track laying force should lay the sidings which 
they will require in handling their construction 
material and boarding cars. Track layers will 
often have to lay temporary sidings where depots 
are not located close together to avoid delays in 
coming back to switch the empty cars out and 
put loaded cars in the construction train. 

The water supply having been decided upon, a 
force of men is at once put to work behind the 



*Appendix J gives details of the late practice inlaying tracks, 
curving rails, etc. 



I 



CONSTRUCTION. 146 

track layers."^ The means of securing a water 
supply call forth the same skill as is displayed 
in obtaining that for a city, only of course, not 
on so extensive a scale. Springs, streams, im- 
pounding reservoirs, open wells both shallow and 
deep, artesian wells, siphons, are called into use 
as conditions suggest. The methods adopted to 
elevate the water are as various as the source of 
supply; windmills, steam pumps, pumps operated 
by gas, and hot air engines, hydraulic rams, or 
gravity from a supply in the hills or mountains 
adjoining may be adopted. The plant has to be 
built so that the supply will not be cut short dur- 
ing a severe winter, and must be cheap to operate. 

The fuel supply has to be attended to at the 
same time as the water supply is being looked 
after. Goal sheds and chutes are usually located 
near a water station; this enables the train to 
take coal and water with the minimum amount 
of delay. Delays to trains can be reduced to a 
minimum by having the water tank or crane and 
coal sheds so located that west or north bound 
trains can take on their supply when stopping at 
stations, east or south bound trains doing the 
same at another set of stations. 

While the water and coal supply is being pro- 
vided for, the turntables must be placed in posi- 
tion as quickly as possible. 

Next comes the erection of depots, warehouses 
and platforms, and these are followed by the 

*It is sometimes necessary to put them to work ahead of 
track to secure a supply of water for the construction train crew 
and engine. 

10 Vol. 13 



146 BUILDING AND REPAIBING RAILWAYS. 

roundhouses, shops and section houses. The 
hotels and eating houses, when erected by the 
railway company, are among the last to be put 
up. The offices for the division superintendents 
and their forces often form part of a depot or 
hotel, seldom a separate building. 

The telegraph line is always kept to the front, 
and an instrument and operator located at the 
last siding at end of track, where the boarding- 
cars of the track-laying force are left at night, 
so that the foreman of the track-layers and the 
surfacing gang can be kept in communication 
with the superintendent of construction or chief 
engineer. 

Fencing the right of way, depot grounds and 
yards is generally the last thing done. 

ADJUSTING AN OLD LINE TO MEET NEW CONDITIONS. 

While no railroad can ever be said to be 
complete as the work of construction and recon- 
struction goes on all the time in order that devel- 
opments and new conditions of traffic may be 
met as they arise, there are instances where it 
becomes necessary for the owners of an estab- 
lished road to consider the desirability of making 
at once such extensive alterations and additions 
to their property that they amount to a practical 
relocation and rebuilding of the line. Such a 
state of affairs may be precipitated by the rapid 
growth of traffic rendering present facilities 
inadequate and the cost of operation unduly 

(Note: A list of authors od Construction is given in Ap- 
pendix K.) 



VONSTRUCTION. 147 

expensive, or it may be caused by the springing 
up of a competitor possessing a line of modern 
construction and fully equipped with the latest 
economic appliances. 

Under such circumstances the problem pre- 
sented to the engineer is a difficult one as he is 
expected to forecast the methods that shall be 
adopted and to state their value. 

It has been a perplexing question to engineers 
to give the value per foot of shortening an exist- 
ing line, or of reducing the degree or length of 
curvature, and to state the value of the reduc- 
tion of the rise and fall per foot of height. If 
the engineer turns to reports furnished by differ- 
ent roads or different divisions of the same road, 
for light, he finds himself beset with difficulties 
because the conditions of traffic, roadbed, rolling 
stock, etc. are dissimilar in every instance and 
are such as to make a comparison of little value 
for the purpose of determining the advisability of 
relocating an old road. 

This has led engineers to fall back on theo- 
retical calculations or a combination of theo- 
retical and practical deductions. The late A. M. 
Wellington in his book ''Economic Theory of 
Railway Location" deduced the theoretical values 
and applied them to the reports of various rail- 
way companies for the values of distance, curv- 
ature, rise and fall and gradients. Later Professor 
W. L. Webb took the data furnished by the 
governmental returns of railways and by gener- 
ally following the lines laid down by Mr. Welling- 
ton has given values for them. 



148 BUILDING AND EE PAIRING RAILWAYS. 

Railway engineers have taken the data of their 
own companies and applied Mr. Wellington's 
method to the peculiar conditions existing on 
their lines. "^ 

The first step is to prepare a table covering a 
period of years showing the operating expenses 
in detail and the percentage which each item 
was of the entire sum. The second step is to 
take this data and study the cost of maintenance 
of way, maintenance of equipment and cost of 
conducting transportation. 

Thus the operating expense table for a period 
of years might show: 

Maintenance of Way and Structures 20.07^ 

Maintenance of Equipment 20 55^ 

Conducting Transportation 49.36^ 

Taxes 5.64^ 

General Expenses 4.38^ 

Total Operating Expenses 100.00 

Average cost per train mile for four years |1. 17 

In a study of the items of ''Maintenance of 
Way/' ''Maintenance of Equipment" and "Con- 
ducting Transportation" the following points 
would have to be observed : 

Maintenance of Way. — Here it becomes neces- 
sary to eliminate the mileage of tracks in yards 
at terminals and division points, also sidings at 
stations, from the total mileage and to use only 
mileage of track in the main line. 

On account of the operating expenses being 

*A detailed description of the method adopted in Mr. Welling- 
ton's theory to the reconstruction of the Union Pacific Railway 
is given in a paper presented by Mr. J. B. Berry at the annual 
meeting of the American Railway Engineering and Maintenance 
of Way Association in 1904. 



CONSTRUCTION, 



149 



given for the entire mileage of track, including 
main line, yards and switches, it becomes at once 
a difficult question to determine the exact cost of 
the maintenance of the main line. However a 
fair value can be arrived at by estimating the 
percentage of cost of the maintenance of the 
yards and switches as compared with the main 
line, and deducting this cost from the total cost 
of maintenance, thus securing as correct data as 
at present is possible for the cost of maintain- 
ing the mileage of the main line track.* 

Maintenance of Equipment. — In the case of the 
railroad mentioned the annual locomotive perfor- 
mance sheets and statistics of train service showed 
that the total train mileage was but lb% of the 
total locomotive mileage. 

The following tables were prepared : 



Statement showing cost of Locomotive Repairs. 






Percentage of 

Repairs 

charged each 

class 


Distribution of contributing causes in Per cent 


Class of service 


<v o 




Getting up 

steam and 

Terminal 

Work 


•o 


1^ 

^5 


© 

a 

5 


Passenger 


31.50 1 2.90 


4.73 
6.49 
0.82 
0.64 


5.35 
7.35 
0.82 
1.08 
12.47 


0.95 
1.30 
0.16 
0.19 


4.41 
6.05 
2.18 
0.32 


13.86 


Freight and Work.. 
Helpers 


43.25 
5.46 
6.38 

13.41 


3.03 
0.38 
0.45 
0.94 


19.03 
1.10 


LiightEnginest 

Switching 


3.70 


Totals 


100.00 


7.00 


12.68 


27.07 


2.60 


12.96 


37.69 



♦For the Union Pacific Railroad Mr. J. B. Berry's conclu- 
sions were as follows : 

Total side track mileage 34 per cent of the main line. 

Main line cost . . .90 per cent of the Maintenance of Way and Structures. 

Large Yards and 

Terminals cost 5 " " " " " " " " 

Small Stations 

cost 5 " '* " " " " *' " 

Entire Mileage 

of Track 100 

\ Light engine mileage includes return of helper engine; only 
the first two classes enter into train mileage. 



150 



BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 



Statement showing 


Cost of Car Repairs. 








Distribution of contributinng causes in Percent 


Class of Service 


11 

o o 

a ^ 


C/3 


Getting up 

steam and 

Terminal 

Work 




5« 


o 

a 
eS 

Q 


Passenger 


100 
100 


11 

6 


20 
20 


11 
16 


2 

2 


20 
20 


36 


Freight and Work.. 


36 



Conducting Transportation. — As only 75/^ of the 
total engine mileage enters into the total train 
mileage, the wages of engine and round house men 
due directly to hauling trains with single engines 
were assumed as lh% of the whole. 

In train service only lh% of the crews are paid 
on a mileage basis, the balance being on monthly 
wages, and any increase of distance, unless it is 
large, would only affect lh% of this item. 

General Explanation. — It must be thoroughly 
understood that the total train mileage includes 
the mileage of all passenger, freight, work and 
special trains, whether producing revenue or not. 
In the calculations as to the effect of the various 
details of location on operating expense a single 
train is considered with a single locomotive, 
therefore none of the expenses connected with 
helper, switch or light engines enters into the 
calculations, and only that proportion of the 
remainder of each item of operating expenses 
which is affected by gradient, distance, curvature, 
etc. is considered. 

Any increase in repairs and renewals of shop 
machinery and tools caused by increase in grad- 



CONSTRUCTION. 161 

ients, distance or curvature is considered as pro- 
portional to the increase in repairs and renewals 
of locomotives and cars. 

Space cannot be given here to go into all the 
details of the theoretical method of using the 
data above outlined in determining economical 
grades, distances, curvatures, etc. and the reader 
is referred to the late A. M. Wellington's work 
on the Economical Theory of Railway Location 
and Mr. J. B. Berry's paper on applying it to the 
Union Pacific Ry. already mentioned. The fol- 
lowing general conclusions, however, are given: 

Summary: Before beginning work on a new 
location the chief engineer will indicate the 
character of the proposed line, probable volume 
of traffic expressed in tons and trains per day, 
and the size and tractive power of the locomo- 
tives to be used. For the field engineer the 
following approximate formulas are introduced 
and the values given for reduction in gradients, 
distance, curvature and rise and fall. 

For general purposes the tractive power of a 
locomotive can be considered at 20^ of the weight 
on the drivers at a velocity of 10 or 12 miles per 
hour, although with fair weather conditions a 
well-designed locomotive should develop a trac- 
tive power of 22i% of the weight on drivers at 
10 miles per hour. 

Assuming 6 lbs. per ton for velocity and friction- 
al resistance, as a fair average, for slow and fast 
freights, with grade resistance, 20 times the rate 
per cent of grade, gives the following formula : 
Tons weight of train, including engine and 



152 BUILDING AND EE PAIRING RAILWAYS, 

tender = 6+2Q?pefc'ntgrIde). In using this formula for 
estimating the number of trains necessary to 
handle the tonage, the weight of freight, or 
paying load, may be considered as 50/^ of the 
weight of train exclusive of the locomotive. 

Gradients: A reduction of gradient on an 
engine district 100 miles long, so as to require 
one less daily train in each direction will result 
in a saving of $37,230.00 per annum. For other 
lengths of district, or a greater reduction in the 
required number of trains, the saving in operating 
expenses per annum will be in direct proportion 
to this. Any reduction in length of helper grades, 
or other change that will eliminate one helper 
engine of the same size as the standard road 
engine, will result in a saving of $14,673 per 
annum, providing the helper engine averages 100 
miles per day. For other average daily mileage 
of helper the saving can be estimated as directly 
proportional to this. 

Distance: A saving in distance will result in 
the following savings per annum per daily train 
one way: 

Class *^A'' — Distances so short as not to affect 
wages of engine or train men, 2.6 cents per foot, 
or $137.00 per mile. 

Class*'B" — Distances affecting train wages, but 
not affecting the number of side tracks required, 
3.7 cents per foot, or $196.00 per mile. 

Class ''C" — Distances so great as to affect the 
number of side tracks required, 4.8 cents per foot, 
or $252.00 per mile. 

Curvature: The elimination of one degree of 



CONSTRUCTION. 153 

curvature will result in a saving per annum per 
daily train one way. Uncompensated curvature, 
23 cents per degree: Compensated curvature, 19i 
cents per degree. 

Rise and Fall: The elimination of one foot 
rise and fall will result in a saving per annum 
per daily train one way as follows: 

Class ''B" — Where grades are such as to require 
shutting off steam in descending but not to require 
the application of brakes: on minor grades, 55 
cents per foot: on ruling grades, 96 cents per foot. 

Class ''C — Where grades are so heavy as to 
require the application of brakes: on minor grades, 
$1.15 per foot; on ruling grades $1.57 per foot. 

The above values are sufficiently close for the 
locating engineer to use in comparing the various 
lines, a final and more careful comparison to be 
made in the office of the chief engineer. 

The revised alignment and grades of the pro- 
posed improvement of a railway having been 
decided upon, the work of construction is next in 
order. 

This is carried on in much the same manner 
as for a new railway, except that machinery is 
used to a greater extent; this is caused by the 
fact that transportation facilities are afforded, 
which do not exist on a new line, and also the 
work as a rule is heavy. The machinery used 
will consist of air compressors, rock drills, steam 
shovels, large locomotives and the larger size 
dump cars; also standard railroad flat cars, rapid 
car unloaders, and for bridge and retaining wall 
work, large derricks operated by steam hoisting 
engines and concrete mixers. 



154 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 

For the prompt and economical handling of 
the freight and passenger business, it is necessary 
that the largest possible number of trains should 
pass over the line in a given time. Experience 
has demonstrated that yard and terminal facili- 
ties are factors which enter largely in determin- 
ing the number of trains which can be handled. 

A railroad having yard and terminal facilities 
which enable a train crew to leave the main line 
track immediately on their arrival at a yard or 
terminal, and which possesses proper facilities 
for cars to be sorted and made up into trains, so 
that all trains leave on schedule time, will have 
a larger earning capacity than another rail road 
where the arriving trains are held out on the 
main line awaiting the yard master to make room 
in the yard for them and where the yards and 
terminals do not permit the economical and rapid 
sorting and handling of cars. 

The question of arranging tracks for yards and 
terminals is a large one, and one that cannot be 
determined by a set of general rules, it is affected 
by the character of the traffic to be handled, the 
topography of the country, the cost of land and 
the location of industries. 

The reconstruction of an old line of railway 
does not end with the work done on the main 
line and yards and terminals; everything which 
will aid in securing faster time for both freight 
and passenger trains and at the same time reduce 
the cost of operation must be taken into consid- 
eration. 

In this connection rapid strides have been 



CONSTRUCTION. 155 

made in coaling engines, handling cinders and 
sand and the water supply. 

Figure 78 illustrates a large terminal coaling 
station for handling coal, cinders and sand. 

The present tendency is to elevate the water 
tank well above the track, so that with the 
greater head the water will flow faster into the 
locomotive tender and thus reduce the time of 
trains stopping at stations. Fig. 79 represents 
such a tank. 



156 BUILDING AND BEPAIRINO RAILWAYS. 




o 

< 
ui 

GO g 



CONSTRUCTION. 



157 




Fig. 78a. 

ELEVATION OP COMBINED COAL, ASH AND SAND BINS. 



15S BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 




FlG. 78b. 



TRANSVERSE SECTION COALING STATION. 



Showing arrangement of conveyors for coal, 'ashes and sand and the 
bins for storing the same. 




Fig. 79. 

WATER TANK. 



Set on iron frame work, water supply pipe to tank protected from 
frost by a wooden box. This tank is placed 20 feet above the track to 
enable the tender to be quickly filled with water, and avoid delaying 
trains. 

(159) 




i 



•1 



Set on iron columns, with concrete steel wall under the tank, and 
having a conical steel bottom which allows the mud to be drawn off. 
Is frost-proof. 

(160) 



CONSTRUCTION. 



161 




Fig. 80a. 



GASOLINE WATER PUMP. 

This view shows a method of installing a gasoline engine for pump- 
ing water for a railroad water station. 



162 



BUILDING AND BEPAIIilNG RAILWAYS. 




o 






H 


c^ 


H 


t> 


<Jl 


;_ 


O 


^ 


O 


O 






H 


TS 


< 


Q) 


^ 


"cS 


P 


0^ 


W 


Q> 


^ 




Oi 






fl 


O 




Ph 


fl 




a 



CO > 



•^ 
^ 



CONSTRUCTION. 



163 




164 



BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 



MARION 



n 
I 

I 



■T\ 






/ ! \ 



\ 



I 



IM ADISO NI 



\ 

\ 

\ 

.A 

Fig. 



5?^*5«^ 



-"5??^ 



n 



80d. 



\ 
I 



^^ 



"A 



u \ 



/. i 



IRON SIGNS. 



Supported by channel or tee iron posts embedded in a concrete base. 
Forming a permanent sign which only requires occasionally to be 
repainted. 



CONSTRUCTION. 



lUa 



i 




12; 
o 

o 
o 



13 



PLH 



a 






166 



BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 




Fig. 80f. 



SHEFFIELD SECTION GASOLINE MOTOR CAR. 



Showing a complete outfit of tools on the car for the day's work. 
This car will, on level track and in ordinary weather, make five miles 
in twenty minutes. By its use no time is lost going to or from work 
and the men are ready to put all their energy into the day's work. 
Should additional tools be required during the day one man can take 
the car to the toolhouse or nearest station and thus quickly obtain 
the necessary supplies. In the event men are required at another 
point this motor car affords the means of transporting them promptly 
and quickly. An inspection car similar generally to an automobile of 
this type is also in use. It will seat nine persons and can be operated 
at any speed up to thirty-five miles an hour. 



CONSTRUCTION. 



167 




Fig. 80g. 



BONZANO RAIL JOINT. SIDE VIEW. 



That part of the splice-plate which fits between the under side of 
the head of the rail and the top of the base of the rail is made in the 
usual manner. The lower part of the splice-plate projects outwardly 
beyond the edge of the rail and is on a level with the base of the rail, 
giving additional bearing on the ties and lateral stiffness to the rail. 
The middle part of the projecting flange is turned down to an angle 
of about ninety degrees without a cutting. The horizontal flanges 
forming the end bearings of the top member of the splice and also the 
bearing for the gusset shaped tie bars which connect the depending 
flange or lower member with the horizontal flanges, form an economi- 
cal, strong and rigid truss, as shown in plate. 




Fig. 80h. 



ONE HUNDRED PER CENT SPLICE BAR. 



This is a modified form of the fish plate, having greater depth of 
metal at the rail joint than the ordinary fish plate, and can only be 
used where the rail joint comes between the ties. 



168 



BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 






Fig. 80i. 



SEMAPHORE STAND. 



This Semaphore Switch Stand is designed to provide an effective 
and satisfactory signal for switches thrown by hand. The ordinary 
color and shape target is replaced by a position signal in the form of 
a semaphore blade. It is equipped with revolving lamp or spectacles 
as required. It can be adapted to any form of stand having a revolving 
mast. 



CONSTRUCTION. 



169 



I 




Fig. 80j. 



THE BUDA OSCILLATING SURFACE CATTLE GUARD. 



This cattle guard is designed on an entirely new principle. It is 
well known that all animals are afraid of an insecure footing. 

This cattle guard swings free of the ties, and when an animal 
places its foot on the guard it oscillates, thus deterring the animal 
from passing over it. 



170 



BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 




Fig. 80k. 



AMERICAN GUARD RAIL FASTENER. 



Under the present conditions of heavy traffic, a reliable guard rail 
fastener is one of the essential requirements of a good track. - 

The guard rail brace, and base plate extending under both the guard 
rail and the rail of the main track, are thoroughly fastened together 
by rivets, and to further secure the brace three track spikes pass 
through both the brace and the base plate. 



CONSTRUCTION. 



171 




Fig. 801. 



THE GRAHAM COMBINED GUARD RAIL. AND FROG BRACE. 

This brace is a stationary gauge and is placed between the guard 
rail and frog, and cannot be applied unless the frog is in perfect gauge. 
It always maintains the correct gauge. This guard rail brace never 
requires re-spiking and no other braces are needed at these points. 

The use of this brace effects a considerable saving in material used 
at each frog, and also a saving of labor in re-spiking the guard-rail. 
The dangerous point of the switch is made as safe as any part of the 
track. It should be placed two to four inches ahead of point of frog 
and firmly spiked to the ties. 




Fig. 80m. 



GUARD RAIL CLAMP. 
Made of malleable iron or steel. 



172 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 




A. 



13 




Fig. SOn. 



TIE PLUG. 



A shows the hole in a tie after a spike is withdrawn. 

B is a wooden plug, slightly larger than a track spike. 

C shows this wooden plug driven in the hole in the tie after the 
removal of the spike. 

Note— After removing the spikes from a tie, all holes should be 
filled with plugs before the tie is used again. 



CHAPTER VI. 

STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIAL. 

The standard sizes and quality of the various 
materials and devices which are used on a new 
line of railroad are largely determined before the 
reconnoissance is made, and are in every case 
definitely decided upon before the located line is 
finally adopted. 

STRUCTURES. 

The financial success of the enterprise will 
largely depend on the selection of the proper 
standards for the different structures along the 
line. Thus if it is decided to erect substantial 
structures for stations, shops, storehouses, etc., 
on a new line, the greatest care must be exer- 
cised, or it may be found that a substantial and 
costly structure has been placed at a point where 
very little business is being done. 

Inasmuch as trading and manufacturing cen- 
ters spring into existence at unexpected points, 
it is advisable to keep the first cost of the road 
down to the minimum, consistent with economy 
of operating. After the country has been devel- 
oped and the character of the business deter- 
mined, then more substantial and permanent 
structures can with advantage be adopted. 

(173) 



174 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 

GAUGE. 

The gauge or distance between the rails, is the 
first point to be decided; a large majority of the 
mileage in America is four feet eight and one- 
half inch gauge, and it is perhaps safe to state 
that this is the gauge of the majority of the rail- 
way mileage of the world. Discussion as to the 
best gauge has been carried on ever since rail- 
way building commenced, and was quite spirited 
from 1870 to 1883, when there was a strong sen- 
timent in favor of a narrower gauge than four 
feet eight and one-half inches, which was then 
and is now called the Standard Gauge. In 1880 
there were 4,000 miles of railway having a gauge 
of three feet, and such lines were then and are 
now called narrow gauge.* 

The advocates of the narrow gauge claimed for 
it the following advantages; 

First — Ability to haul heavier loads. 

Second — Ability to pass around sharper curves. 

Third — That the road could be constructed for 
less money, and 

Fourth — That the pajang load hauled was a 
larger percentage of the dead load hauled than 
on roads having standard gauge. 

As the standard and narrow gauge roads ex- 
isted and were operated in 1880, these claims 
were correct, but only the second and third are 
due to the gauge. 

The load hauled by a locomotive depends on 
the relation existing between the horse-power 

^Appendix E gives a list of the gauges of railroads that are or 
have been in use in different countries. 



STANDABDS OF C0N8TBUCTI0N. 175 

and the weight on the drivers, as the load to be 
hauled increases, the weight on the drivers and 
the horse-power of the locomotive must be cor- 
respondingly increased; it is not economy to 
have the weight of ^the drivers designed for a 
greater load than the horse-power of the engine 
will pull; this would be a case of a dead load 
having no earning capacity. On the other hand, 
if the horse-power is greatly in excess of the 
weight on the drivers, the result is that the driv- 
ers spin round on the track (slip) when a load 
suitable to the horse-power is attached to the lo- 
comotive. The discussion of the gauges referred 
to taught the managers of the broad gauge roads 
that their locomotives could be designed to se- 
cure greater efficiency or economy. The second 
claim of the narrow gauge advocates possessed 
but small value, except in extremely rough and 
difficult country, and then only at exceptional 
points. The third claim, which they considered 
one of their strong points, is not so strong as it 
appears; where a new line is to be built to de- 
velop a country, and the business will be light 
for some years, the bridging, rails, locomotives 
and cars can be built of a light, cheap standard 
and the rolling stock kept on the line; bulk ma- 
terial, such as live stock, grain, wool, etc., can 
be handled in foreign cars of connecting lines, 
where the shipment is to a point off the line; 
this method saves the expense of transferring 
bulk shipments at terminals, and the bridging, 
track and rolling stock would cost about the 
same as for a narrow gauge. The saving in the 



176 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

grading for a surface road averaging six feet cut 
and fill, placing fifty cents per yard for the av- 
erage price paid per cubic yard of material 
moved, would be $1,200.00 per mile. A light 
broad gauged road equipped as above described 
has, in addition to the advantage of handling 
bulk freight, the further advantage that the 
earnings can be used to equip it for heavy traffic 
as the business of the country is developed, and 
all improvements can be made to conform to 
the equipment used on the older roads. 

At the time of the discussion in favor of the 
narrow gauge the capacity of the narrow gauge 
freight cars was a much higher percentage of the 
dead load than that of the broad gauge freight 
cars. This educated the managers of the broad 
gauge roads, and to=day there are freight cars of 
80,000 pounds capacity and 36,000 pounds weight 
or dead load, while in 1880 the capacity was 
about the same as the dead load. 

As a rule, all new lines built in a country 
where railroads already exist should be of the 
same gauge as existing ones. This will enable 
freight to be handled more cheaply than where 
there has to be a transfer from one car to an- 
other at terminals. The fact that there was a 
narrow gauge mileage of 4,000 miles in 1880 
and a mileage of 3,000 miles in 1899 points con- 
clusively to the fact that the standard gauge is 
more economical to operate. 

CUTS AND FILLS. 

The next point to be decided is the width at 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 177 

grade of the cuts and fills. On a standard gauge 
road, the following table gives the widths used 
on some of the lines in North America: 

SINGLE TRACK. 

Eartli Rock 

Name of Road. Embankment. Excavation. Excavation. 

New York Cent. & Hudson 

River 16 ft. 19 ft. 17 ft 

New York, New Haven & 

Hartford .18 ft. 18 ft. 18 ft. 

Lake Shore & Michigan 

Southern 16 ft. 23f ft. 

Baltimore & Ohio 17 ft. 19 ft. 18 ft. 

Southern Pacific 16 ft. 19 ft. 

Northern Pacific 14 ft. 20 ft. 16 ft. 

Chicago & Nor.-West 20 ft. 24 ft. 22 ft. 

Tratman recommends 16 ft. 20 ft. 18 ft. 

Often used on new lines 

with earth ballast 14 f t . 18 f t . 16 ft. 

The slopes adopted are generally as follows: 

For earth cuts 1 horizontal to 1 vertical. 

For rock cuts \ ** to 1 '' 

For rock cuts over 30 feet cutting.^ " to 1 " 

Earth embankments IJ *' to 1 *' 

Rock embankments \\ ** to 1 *' 

The slopes of earth cuts near depots in towns and 
suburban districts of large cities are often flat- 
tened to H to 1 and 2 to 1 and rounded off at 
the top and sodded. 

Narrow Gauge Sections. The widths of cuts 
and fills for narrow gauge railroads can be made 
less than for a Standard gauge. A deduction of 
two feet can be made where the gauge is three 
feet. 

Controlling Points. The points which control 
the width of rock cuts are the room required to 



17S BUILDING AND BEPAIRINO RAILWAYS. 

clear the lower steps on the platforms of passenger 
cars. The long cars and their truss rods are also 
a factor which has to be taken into account as 
clearance must be provided for them. 

The character of the material through which 
an earth cut is made, and the amount of surface 
drainage into the cut, are the factors in deter- 
mining the slope of an excavation and the width 
at gradOo There are often cases where the sur- 
face drainago is diverted by ditches sometimes 
called berme ditches ten or fifteen feet back from 
the edge of the slope to the end of the cut to 
prevent the water running down the face of the 
excavation, and where the character of the 
material will stand a slope of i or f to 1. In 
such a case a largo saving is made, but the en- 
gineer who attempts this must have had experi- 
ence in handling material. There are some 
gravels and clays which will stand at a steeper 
slope than 1 to 1. However, with the clays, 
their lines of cleavage or seams may cause fail- 
ures under the most promising circumstances. 

Mr. Tratman in ^'Railway Track and Track 
Work " in treating on the widths at grade of 
cuts and fills says: 

*'The surface at subgrade is almost invariably 
crowned at the middle to drain off water to the 
sides, the only exception of which the writer is 
aware being on the Eastern Railway of France, 
where the surface is made slightly concave, and 
tile drains are led from the bottom of the hollow 
to the face of the bank. The roadbed may be 
formed in different ways to throw off the water 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 179 

reaching it through the ballast: (1), it may have 
one or more planes from each side to the center; 
(2), it may have a curved surface with a rise of 3 
to 6 inches for single track and 6 to 8 inches for 
double track; or (3) it may have a flat center por- 
tion with planes each side of the ditch. In 
regions of ordinary rainfall the best plan is to 
give a slope, as it will throw off water better 
than a flat curve. The more solid and compact 
the surface of the roadbed is made before the bal- 
last is applied, the better will be the drainage, 
and the latest specifications prepared by Mr. 
Katte, Chief Engineer of the New York Central 
Railway require the subgrade to be as nearly 
homogeneous in composition and consistency as 
practicable for a depth of 18 to 24 inches, solidi- 
fied to uniform resistance by thorough ramming 
or rolling, and truly graded in regular drainage 
planes, having a rise of 6 inches for a double 
track roadbed 27 feet wide on a bank. In some 
cases the roadbed is inclined on curves to give 
the proper superelevation to the track, but this 
practice is not general. 

*'In some cases the slope of the roadbed is con- 
tinued to meet the toe of the slope in cuts, but 
with earth or other poor ballast and in country 
with ordinary rainfall, it is better to have a ditch 
reaching well below subgrade, so as to effectually 
drain the roadbed. The drainage of the track is 
effected by the ballast, the crowning of the sub- 
grade and by side ditches in cuts, which latter 
carry away the water from the ballast and road- 
bed, and this drainage is one of the most import- 



ISO BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

ant items in maintaining a good track, its im- 
portance increasing as the quality or quantity of 
the ballast decreases, and increasing also in rela- 
tion to the extent of rainfall. Climatic condi- 
tions are, of course, to be considered in designing 
the form of cross-section of roadbed, heavy ditch- 
ing not being required in dry regions with light 
soil. On roads through country with a moder- 
ate rainfall, the ditches should, nevertheless, be of 
ample capacity to carry off the storm water in 
occasional heavy rains. The ditches should be 
parallel with the track, not made to wind around 
stumps or holders, and must be graded so as to 
pass all water freely and to thoroughly drain the 
roadbed and keep both ballast and roadbed firm 
and dry. The width should increase towards the 
ends, and if the standard width does not give 
sufficient capacity, the ditch should be widened 
on the outer side. 

''The distance from the rail to the ditch varies 
according to the nature of the soil, and the bot- 
tom should be about 16 to 24 inches below the 
crown of sub-grade. An average arrangement 
in ordinary material is a distance of 7 feet from 
the rail to the edge of a ditch 24 inches wide on 
top, 18 inches wide on the bottom, with the 
bottom 8 inches below center of roadbed on 
single track, or 12 inches on double track. In 
wet cuts the ditches may be lined with cement, 
or in narrow cuts (especially where the earth 
slides or bulges) they may be lined with plank 
or old ties with struts across the top. Sub-drains 
of tile, brush, or wooden boxes may be laid as 



STANDABDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 181 

required. Where it is necessary to carry water 
from the ditch on one side to the ditch on the 
other side, of the track, or from a center ditch to 
the side ditches (as on double track) box drains 
of wood are laid in the ballast. These box 
drains are usually 12x12 inches inside, 12 to 16 
feet long, made of 2-inch plank with the ends 
sloped to conform to the slope of the ballast, and 
having four or six flat strips 2x6x16 inches across 
the top. The ditches may be carried under road 
crossings by cast-iron pipe, clay, sewer or culvert 
pipe, or wooden box drains. The first is prefer- 
able, as wood soon rots and lets dirt fall in to 
clog the drain, and clay pipe is liable to be 
broken, as there is generally very little cover 
over it. The size of the pipe varies according to 
the amount of water to be carried, but is gener- 
ally 6 to 10 inches, while the box drain is usually 
about 8x10 inches, having plank sides and bottom 
and a top of cross strips nailed close together." 

Sections of the roadbed and ballast used on 
some railroads are shown in Figs. 81 to 89. 



Fig. 81. 

EARTH BALLAST.— GALVESTON, HOUSTON & HENDERSON RAILWAY. 



1S2 BUILDING ^iND JRj^P AIMING B^ULWAYS. 



-5-2\ i 

3-e*i •{ 



> 6V 






7'fe 9t7'*/o" 



• 7-9 




Fig. 82. 

GRAVEL BALLAST.— GALVESTON, HOUSTON & HENDERSON RAILWAY 



•-e'-o' 




I ^■^.r^TTr-TT^^^^^;^;^:^^ ^f 



.^w\\\\\\\\\\VVV'^U\\\U'J W\VU\\U'v^WU';\\\V\Cv 



- r/i- s-'<?'*a" 




Fig. 83. 

EARTH BALLAST.— ILLINOIS CENTRAL RAILROAD. 



<< — 




^'-^ 


1 


— ->^ 


6 

1 


-0 


1^ 


••! X^ 
















;<9"^ /2'> 9";l <?j^ 


i«« 


^^m^. 


'^mm^. 


W^x 





XLjEJ;^^ 



« 



Fig. 84. 

CRUSHED STONE, 2 INCHES DIAMETER ON QUARRY SPAULS 4 TO 6 INCHES 
DLA.METER.— N. Y, C & H. R R. R. 



STAJS'BAEBS OF CONSTRUCTION. 



183 




Fig. 85. 

BALLAST, CRUSHED STONE 2H INCHES DIAMETER.-PENNA. R. R. 




Ss^v^^^vWvVvvAv^^^^r^^" ^'' 



/6 '- o' 



Fig. 86. 



ROCK CUT STONE BALLAST, 2!^ INCHES DIAMETER.— C. «fc R D BRANCH, 

PENNA. R. R. 



184 BUILDING AND REP AIMING BAILWATS, 







<i3 



< 
I 

H 
< 

< 

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< 





LV>i 



-t-'^"" 



tIC A-»^ 



Bj 




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.si^:^ 



00 
GO 










STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 



185 




■8-0 



Oi T,tJ 



Fig. 89. 

BURNT CLAY BALLAST.— C. B. & Q. R. R. 

The sections used in some of the American and 
foreign tunnels are shown in Figs. 90 to 94. 




186 BUILDING ^{ND EEPAIBING RAILWAYS. 



m \iim//////^ ////////////My/. 




}< a V!- o" ->2-5"!^ 



Fig. 91. 

SECTION OP TUNNEL AT PORT PERRY.-P. V. &. C. RY. 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 



187 



^^iUiL^ 




-^ 



Fig. 92. 

SECTION OF TUNNEL. OX THE INSBRUCK-BOZEN LINE OF AUSTRIAN 

SOUTHERN RY CO. 



(I Vol 13 



188 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 




Fig. 93. 

SECTION OF TUNNEL USED BY GOVERNMENT RAILWAY OF 

EAST INDIA. 



STANDAJRDS OF CONSTBUCTION. 
I 



189 




Fig. 94. 

SECTION OF IRON TUNNEL. UNDER ST. CLAIR RIVER USED BY 
GRAND TRUNK RY. 

BALLAST. 

Newly constructed roads and the branches of 
some of the larger systems are largely ballasted 
with earth, or rather, are not ballasted at all, 



190 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 

either for the reason that financial conditions 
prevent or the traffic is so light as not to require 
it. In this case the methods adopted to support 
the track are fairly illustrated by the sections of 
the roadbed of the Galveston, Houston & Hen- 
derson Railway and the Illinois Central Railway 
where the earth is filled over the center of the 
tie level with the top of the rail, sloping out to 
the bottom of the tie at its end; this gives drain- 
age by conveying the water off the bank rapidly, 
and permits the moisture under the tie to drain 
out at the end. The objections to this plan- are 
that the earth over the center of the tie tends to 
rot it and the lack of support at the end makes 
it difficult to hold the track to line. However, 
in the country where these sections are used, the 
rainfall at some seasons of the year is heavy and 
continuous and the sections adopted are the best 
for such climatic conditions. Where the rainfall 
is not so great and where the ground is more or 
less frozen during the winter, the earth (and 
ballast also when used) is not placed on top of 
the tie. 

The various kinds of ballast used can be classed 
as follows: Stone, slag, gravel, sand, cinders and 
burnt clay. The requirements of a good ballast 
are that it shall \)e durable; of a character that 
will allow water to drain off freely; that it will 
be free from dust and of such a quality and form 
that it will remain in position and hold the tie. 

The material which most nearly fills all the 
above requirements is trap rock and the harder 
granites. However, circumstances compel the 



STAXDABDS OF CONSTRUCTIOX. 191 

adoption of the best means at hand, and any hard 
stone which will break into cubical form is used. 
Shales which break into flat sheets crush into 
powder, and do not give good drainage, they 
should, therefore, not be used. The practice of 
some roads is to lay a bed of large stone 6 to 9 
inches thick on the subgrade, and on this place a 
layer of 6 to 10 inches of stone broken to a 
uniform size of li to 2 inches; however, care 
must be taken to first fill the openings in the top 
of the large stone with spauls before placing the 
broken stone ballast. The ties are placed on top of 
the broken stone and broken stone filled in around 
them up to and level with the tops of the ties. 
Another method is to place the crushed stone di- 
rectly on the subgrade; the Pennsylvania Rail- 
way do this, using 10 inches of stone under the 
tie. Some roads require the ballast to be broken 
to such a size that the largest stone will pass 
through a 2i-inch ring and others through a 3- 
inch ring. The smallest size used must not be 
less than one inch cube. In these cases the stone 
is broken by a crusher and run through a screen 
which separates the different sizes. The larger 
size should be laid on the subgrade and the 
smaller size form the top of the ballast. On this 
subject Mr. Tratman states: 

" In some cases a layer of gravel is laid upon a 
bottom layer of broken stone, but this is not gen- 
eral, and it is not to be recommended though 
claimed to combine the good drainage of stone 
with economy in material, as gravel is in general 
cheaper and more easily procured. The 2i-inch 



192 BUILDING AND REPAIRINO BAILWAYS. 

stone is sometimes covered with a top dressing 
of 1-inch stone, and the Pennsylvania Railway in 
some places lays small broken stone over the reg- 
ular ballast and covering the ties, the purpose be- 
ing to deaden the sound in the cars. The new 
steel ties for the New York Central Railway will 
be entirely covered with ballast except over the 
rail fastenings. This practice is not good Avith 
wooden ties as a rule, as it leads to rotting by 
keeping the ties damp, and prevents inspection, 
but in very hot, dry regions, it may be permissible 
in order to protect the ties from the sun. Stone 
ballast should be handled with forks and not 
with shovels so as to avoid putting dirt into the 
track, as the dirt hinders the drainage and affords 
a chance for weeds to grow. From a main- 
tenance point of view it may be noted that 
stone ballast on a poor road involves greater ex- 
pense for renewal and maintenance (perhaps at 
a time when little money is available) than when 
gravel is used. 

''Slag. — Furnace slag or cinder is extensively 
used on roads in the vicinity of blast furnaces 
and iron works. It is about as durable as broken 
stone and in other ways almost as good, though 
it is sometimes said that ties decay in it more 
rapidly than in stone ballast. If properly drained, 
however, the difference is but small. It is con- 
sidered that it should be as free from lime as 
possible, but a reported corrosion of rails on slag 
ballast does not seem to be substantiated. Mr. 
Mordecai, Assistant Chief Engineer of the Erie 
Railway, states that furnace companies are gen- 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 193 

erally glad to supply the material free on cars at 
the furnaces, in order to get rid of it. It does 
not require a great deal of labor to break it up 
and costs about as much to put under the track 
as stone, possibly a little less. It should be broken 
to a 2-inch or 2i-inch ring, and like stone, it 
should be handled by forks, so as to be free from 
dust and uirt. There should be at least 10 inches 
of slag under the ties. The tamping is done in 
the same way as with stone, though Mr. Morde- 
cai thinks that slag requires a little more tamp- 
ing in the middle of the Itie, so as to keep the 
track in good condition for easy riding. It gives 
excellent results, keeps the track in good line and 
surface, and does not heave as much as gravel. 
On the Chesapeake & Ohio Railway it has been 
used for some years, the average depth under the 
ties being 12 inches, and Mr. Frazier, Chief En- 
gineer, states that it is very satisfactory and 
economical. The bulk of this slag is as small as 
ordinary gravel, and is loaded with a steam 
shovel. The engineer has been able to get it in 
this condition by arranging with the furnaces to 
pour the hot slag from the pots down an incline 
30 to 40 feet, when the slag spreads out and cools 
very rapidly. This gives it the appearance of 
broken china, instead of the porous sponge-like 
appearance of the large lumps of slag handled in 
the ordinary way. On the Lehigh Valley Rail- 
way a 12-inch bed of slag is sometimes put under 
the ties, and then covered with anthracite ashes 
filled in between the ties. The cross-section is 
usually formed similar to that for broken stone, 



194 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

and an important feature of slag ballast is that 
owing to the sharpness of its edges it checks 
people from walking on the track. It is exten- 
sively used in England, where it is run from a 
furnace onto a traveling belt and suddenly cooled 
by water, which hardens it and breaks it up at 
the same time. In view of its low cost and its 
excellence as ballast, it might well be adopted 
by many roads which now use an inferior gravel 
on their main tracks. If the traffic is heavy, the 
improved condition of track and the reduced cost 
of maintenance would probably warrant the ex- 
pense for transportation of slag ballast from the 
furnaces. 

'' Burnt Clay — This has been used in England 
and other foreign countries for over twenty 
years, and its use is extending in this country — 
mainly in the West. The most suitable material 
is brick clay (or almost any clay that has not 
too much sand) and gumbo, or clayey earth, and 
experiments have been made with the ' black 
wax ' earth of Texas. The site for burning is 
cleared of top soil, and a row of old ties, cord- 
wood, etc., about three feet high, is laid the 
length of the kiln 500 to 4,000 feet. This is 
covered with a few inches of slack coal, or slack 
and lump mixed, upon which is thrown a layer 
of clay 9 to 12 inches thick. The wood is then 
lighted at intervals, the openings being closed 
when the fire is started. As the burning pro- 
ceeds, another layer of coal is placed, and an- 
other layer of 6 to 9 inches of clay, and these 
layers are repeated from time to time until the 



STANDABDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 195 

finished heap is about 20 feet wide and 10 feet 
high. One ton of slack coal will burn 4 to 5 
cubic yards of clay, and the cost varies from 35 
to 85 cents per cubic yard loaded on the cars. 
About 1,000 cubic yards per day can be burned 
in a kiln 4,000 feet long, about 50 men being 
employed. The work is usually done by con- 
tract, the company furnishing the land, side- 
track and coal. Partial estimates are given on 
kiln measurements, and the final estimate is 
made from car measurements when loaded out, 
so that worthless material is not paid for. The 
ballast is light (40 to 50 pounds per cubic foot), 
easily handled, gives good drainage, is free from 
weeds, is not dusty, and is in general satisfactory, 
requiring renewal in six to eight years. It is 
said to crush rather easily under the ties and to 
necessitate shovel tamping, but the writer does 
not consider that shovel tamping is necessary 
with any ballast under ordinary conditions. The 
cross-section is formed similar to that for stone 
ballast, and there should be at least 12 inches 
under the ties, as this ballast must be used liber- 
ally to give good results. Further particulars of 
the manufacture and use of this material are 
given in the writer's paper on ' Improvements in 
Railway Track ^ (Transactions, American Society 
of Civil Engineers, March, 1890), and in 'Engi- 
neering News,' New York, November 16, 1893. 
The cost per cubic yard of ballast in the track is 
about $1.05, distributed as follows, the price for 
the first item being variable: 



196 BUILDING AND HE PAIRING RAILWAYS. 

Contract price for burning 38 cents. 

Average cost of coal 21 * - 

Loading on cars 8 

Distributing 9 

Putting under track 22 

Interest and depreciation 4 

Land 1 

Miscellaneous expenses 2 



Total cost per cubic yard $1 . 05 

'^The burnt clay ballast used on the St. Louis, 
Keokuk & Northwestern Railway is a black, 
clayey soil or gumbo, and the railway company 
contracted for it burned in the pit, the company 
laying the necessary tracks, furnishing the old 
ties and slack coal for burning, and loading and 
hauling the burned ballast. The cost on cars at 
the pit was estimated at 65 to 70 cents per cubic 
yard, which is higher than usually estimated, but 
a number of small items were included which are 
sometimes overlooked. The burnt ' black wax ' 
soil ballast on the Texas Midland Railway is said 
to cost $1.00 per cubic yard in the track, 
and to have the advantage of being absorbent, 
so that in ordinary rainfalls most of the water is 
taken up by the ballast (which does not soften) 
and does not go through to the roadbed. 

''Gravel. — This material is more used than any 
other in this country and is of very varying quality. 
It may be sandy and dusty or loamy (when weeds 
will grow, drainage will be affected and the track 
will heave) or else full of large stones, which 
make an irregular and rough riding track. The 
best gravel should be clean and coarse, and as far 
as possible of uniform size and quality. It does 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 197 

not give as good drainage as stone, but a fairly 
coarse and clean gravel will be generally satis- 
factory. It is good economy to use plenty of 
gravel, giving at least 8 inches (or better 10 in- 
ches) under the ties, as it will enable a fairly 
good track to be maintained nearly all the year 
through without excessive work. It can be 
tamped by picks or bars, the latter being gener- 
ally preferred, and is easily taken care of. In 
Europe the gravel is sometimes thoroughly 
washed by machinery to free it entirely from 
earth and sand. 

^' There are varying opinions as to the cross- 
section depending upon the quality of the mate- 
rial and the climatic conditions. Thus with 
good, clean, coarse gravel, or in warm, dry le- 
gions, it is better to make the section as with 
broken stone, bringing the ballast level with the 
tops of the ties and shouldering it out 6 to 12 
inches from their ends. With inferior fine or 
loamy gravel (and this is the quality most gener- 
ally met with) or where water and frost have to 
be considered, it is better to slope the ballast 
from the middle of the tie to the ends, to allow 
the water to drain off and not be held back by 
the rails, the ballast being one inch clear below 
the rail base. The slope may be made continuous 
with that of the roadbed to the ditch, and may 
be to the bottom of the end of the tie or a little 
higher, so as to leave part of the end embedded, 
out this latter arrangement is likely to retain 
water along the ends of the ties. In some cases 
the ballast is flat on top for about 3 f eet^ and then 



19S BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

slopes down under the rails to the bottom of the 
ties. Fine gravel is sometimes filled in 2 or 3 
inches above the ties at the middle, but in wet 
country this keeps the ties damp and leads to 
rotting, though in dry country it may protect 
them from the sun and from hot engine cinders. 
The Houston & Texas Central Eailway fills in the 
gravel between the rails to the level of the under 
side of the rail heads. On double track the bal- 
last is usually sloped towards the middle of the 
roadbed to form a central drain which should be 
at least 6 inches below the ties, and is sometimes 
carried down to the surface of the roadbed. Cross 
box drains in the ballast carry the water to the 
side ditches. At stations on the Southern Pacific 
Railway the ties rest on 8 inches of ballast, and 
cinders are filled in nearly to the underside of 
the rail heads between the rails and between the 
main and side tracks. 

'* Cinders. — Engine cinders make a cheap and 
serviceable ballast which will last for some time 
under light traffic. Being porous it drains well 
and does not hold moisture. It is easily handled by 
the shovel, does not heave much with the action 
of the frost, and prevents weeds from growing. 
The principal objection is that it makes a very 
dusty track until after some length of service, 
when the rain and traffic compact the material 
very thoroughly. It is very generally used for 
sidetracks and yards* With a wet roadbed, and 
with earth or mud ballast in the spring, or in wet 
weather when the earth is too soft to fulfill its 
purpose; a good layer of cinders will much facil- 



8TANDABDS OF CONSTBUCTION. 199 

itate maintenance, and in very bad cases the mud 
holes or wet spots may be dug out and filled with 
cinders. The cinders should not be laid on earth 
ballast, however, when the frost is coming out of 
the ground or this action will be checked, and it 
will be late in the season before it is thoroughly 
out. In cross-section the ballast is sometimes 
formed the same as for broken stone, and on side 
tracks it may either be sloped down to form a 
drain between that and the main track as on the 
Baltimore & Ohio Railway, or be filled in level, 
as on the Erie Railway. The cinders are some- 
times applied upon a bed of stone or slag ballast 
upon which the ties rest. 

" Sand. — This makes a fairly good ballast under 
light traffic, but unless it is very coarse it requires 
constant attention and renewal, involving con- 
siderable maintenance work as it flows from 
under the ties with the pumping motion of the 
ties, and is gradually drifted away by the wind 
and washed away by the rain. It is generally 
shaped the same as gravel, but if well shouldered 
out from the ends of the ties and level with them 
as on the Minneapolis, St. Paul & Sault Ste Marie 
Railway (shaped the same as broken stone bal- 
last) it Avill hold the track better, and there will 
be much less flowing from the ties. Owing to its 
instability it does not keep track well in align- 
ment. It is convenient to handle and drains 
fairly well, but it heaves in winter, makes a dusty 
track, and is very hard on the journals and ma- 
chinery. In India sand ballast is often covered 
with a layer of broken stone or broken brick to 



200 BUILDING AND BE P AIMING BAILWAYS, 

prevent strong winds from blowing it away. 
Special grasses or bushes may also be used as 
wind breaks in sandy districts." 

TIES. 

The quality of the cross-tie has an important 
bearing on the stability and permanence of the 
roadbed and the cost of maintenance. Ties can 
be divided into three general classes: (a) wood 
untreated; {b) wood treated with a preservative 
process, and (c) metal. 

The kinds of wood used for ties vary, of course, 
with every country. The different woods used 
in the United States for ties approximate the fol- 
lowing proportions: oak, sixty-two per cent.; 
chestnut, five per cent.; pine, seventeen per 
cent.; cedar (red, white and California), seven 
per cent.; hemlock and tamarack, three per 
cent. ; cypress, two per cent. ; redwood, three per 
cent. ; other kinds, one per cent. 

The requirements of a good tie are: (a) abil- 
ity to hold a spike against the strain exerted on 
the spike by the rail; (b) it must not be brittle 
and split when the spike is driven; (c) the wood 
should not yield or be compressed by the rail; 
{d) it should withstand the pressure of the bal- 
last (when stone) without being crushed; (e) its 
size should give sufficient bearing surface to sup-, 
port the load imposed without the rail sinking 
into the tie, or the tie being pressed into the bal- 
last, or become broken; (/) finally, it should be 
durable. 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 20] 

White oak makes the best tie, both for wear 
and durability; it generally fails from decay 
rather than wear; the life of a white oak tie is 
about eight years under heavy traffic, and some- 
times twelve years under light traffic. Chestnut 
oak is the second best variety of oak, and lasts 
about seven years. The other varieties of oak 
are not of sufficient durability to be used much. 
Chestnut is equal in durability to white oak, but 
being a softer wood the rail cuts into it more, 
and it is not suitable for use on curves. Several 
varieties of pine are used, yellow and Louisiana 
and Texas long leaf pine being among the best; 
while they are not hard woods they do not de- 
cay rapidly, and their life on tangents is about 
seven years, where the traffic is heavy; under 
light traffic they have lasted ten years. Cedar 
ties give satisfaction with a light traffic when 
used on tangents, but the rail cuts into them 
and they do not hold the spikes well, especially 
on curves; their life can be placed at about eight 
years. Hemlock and tamarack are used in sec- 
tions where they grow, on account of their 
cheapness; they are soft timber and do not hold 
the spikes well; the rail cuts into them, and 
they rot quickly; their life is probably from 
four to six years. Cypress may be classed 
with the long leaf pine as to wear and durability; 
it will average about eight years service. Red- 
wood is very durable, but, being soft, its length 
of service is determined by the time the rail 
will cut into it and destroy it from wear; its or- 
dinary life on the Southern Pacific Railway is 



202 BUILDING AND BE PAIRING BAILWAY8. 

given from five years up, depending on the 
amount of traffic. 

The cause of decay in timber is given clearly 
in the report of a committee on Preservation of 
Timber to the American Society of Civil En- 
gineers on June 25th, 1885, which is as follows: 

*' Pure woody fiber is said by chemists to be 
composed of 52.4 parts of carbon, 41.9 parts of 
oxygen and 5.7 parts of hydrogen, and to be the 
same in all the different varieties. If it can be 
entirely deprived of the sap and of moisture, it 
undergoes change very slowly, if at all. 

'^ Decay originates with the sap. This varies 
from 35 to 55 per cent, of the whole when the 
tree is filled, and contains a great many sub- 
stances, such as albuminous matter, sugar, starch, 
resin, etc., with a large portion of water. 

*^ Woody fiber alone will not decay, but when 
associated with the sap fermentation takes place 
in the latter (with such energy as may depend 
upon its constituent elements), which act upon 
the woody fiber and produce decay. In order 
that this may take place, it is believed that there 
must be a concurrence of four separate condi- 
tions: 

'' First — The wood must contain the elements 
or germs of fermentation when exposed to air 
and water. 

*^ Second — There must be water or moisture to 
promote the fermentation. 

''Third — There must be air present to oxidize 
the resulting products. 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 203 

'* Fourth — The temperature must be approxi- 
mately between 50° and 100° F. Below 32° F. 
and above 150° F. no decay occurs. 

"When, therefore, wood is exposed to the 
weather (air, moisture and ordinary tempera- 
ture) fermentation and decay will take place, 
unless the germs can be removed or rendered in- 
operative. 

''Experience has proven that the coagulation 
of the sap retards, but does not prevent, the de- 
cay of wood permanently. It is, therefore, 
necessary to poison the germs of decay which 
may exist, or may subsequently enter the wood, 
or to prevent their intrusion, and this is the of- 
fice performed by the various antiseptics. 

" We need not here discuss the mooted ques- 
tion between chemists whether fermentation and 
decay result from slow combustion {Erema causis) 
or from the presence of living organisms {Bacte- 
ria, etc.)."^ 

The following table, giving the life of un- 
treated wooden railway ties, is taken from Bul- 
letin No. 9, Forestry Division, U. S. Department 
of agriculture: 

LIFE OF WOODEK RAILWAY TIES. 
Railways. Ties. Av. life, years. 

Delaware & Hudson White oak, 7 to 12 

Chestnut, 5 to 10 

Lake Shore & Mich. Southern . . White oak, 6 

Lehigh Valley White and rock oak, 8 

** Cypress, 8 

'* Chestnut, 8 

** Yellow pine, 7 

* Report A. S. C. E., June 25th, 1885, pp. 288 and 289. 
12 Vol. 13 



204 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

Railways. Ties. Av. life, years. 

Pennsylvania White oak, 5 to 6 

'* Rock oak, 5 to 6 

Allegheny Valley White oak, 9 

Central of N. J Oak, 3 

" * * Yellow pine, 8 

•* Chestnut, t> 

Baltimore & Ohio Oak, 8 

Boston & Maine Chestnut, cedar and 

hemlock, 5 to / 

Michigan Central Oak, 6 to 9 

Cedar, 6 to 9 

** Tamarack, 4 

** , Hemlock, 4 

Cleveland, Cincinnati, 

Chicago & St. Louis White, burr 

and chestnut oak; 
wild cherry, honey 
locust and black 

walnut. ab't 9 

Alabama Midland Yellow pine, 5 to 6 

Nashville, Chattanooga 

& St. Louis White or post oak, 6 

Mo., Kas. & Texas White, post and burr 

oak, cherry and 

sassafras, 6 to 8 
Burlington, Cedar Rapids 

& Northern White oak and cedar, 8f 

Flint & Pere Marquette Hemlock, 5 

. . ..White oak, 8 to 9 

Cedar, 8 to 10 

Chicago & Alton. Oak, 8 

♦• '' Cedar, 6 

Chicago & Northwestern White oak, 6 to 8 

Cedar, 10 to 12 

*• ** Hemlock, 5 to 7 

Minn., St. Paul & Sault 

Ste Marie Cedar and oak, 8 to 10 



STANDABDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 205 

Railways. Ties, Av. life, years. 
Minn., St. Paul & Sault 
Ste Marie Hemlock and tama- 
rack, 6 to 7 
Minn., St. Paul & Sault 

Ste Marie Red spruce, 6 

Denver & Rio Grande Yellow pine, | 

Oak, 6 to 10 

Union Pacific Pine, 5 to 8 

•* Red spruce 8 

White cedar, 8 to 9 

•* Pine (burnettized), 7 to 9 

'« Oregon fir and pine, 4 to 7 

* * Tamarack, 5 

Louisyille & N ashville White and post oak, 7 to 8 

Chicago, Burl'gton & Quincy . .Oak, cedar, 8 

..Yellow pine, 5 to 7 

Treated wood ties. In taking up the subject 
of ties and other timber treated with wood pre- 
servatives the investigator is confronted with a 
lack of reliable data. This lack of knowledge on 
the subject has retarded the adoption of preserva- 
tive methods to a great extent. 

Advances in the price of ties have brought out 
the fact that available supplies of the more dura- 
ble hardwoods have been so far exhausted as 
greatly to diminish the possible supply. Timber 
owners have naturally not been slow to avail 
themselves of this fact and the railroads in many 
sections of the country are casting about for a 
remedy. An obvious solution is to follow Euro- 
pean practice, and to resort to the chemical 
treatment of the more perishable woods, which 
are still abundant and comparatively cheap. 

From a paper by W. W. Curtis, read before the 
American Society of Civil Engineers, May 17th, 



206 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 

1899, the inference may be drawn that the prob- 
lem of treating the softer and cheaper woods, so 
as to secure a cross tie that will last sufficiently 
long to make the investment a financial success, 
has been solved for the United States. He says 
th^t ''during the last twelve years something like 
10,000,000 cross ties have been treated, and dur- 
ing the present year there Avill probably be 1,- 
500,000 ties treated." 

Poor's Manual give the mileage of railways in 
the United States on December, 31st, 1898, as 
follows: 

Mileage 184,894.33 miles. 

Second track, sidings, etc 60,344.54 ** 

Total track 245,238.87 *' 

Taking 2,700 ties per mile and the average life 
of a tie as eight years, this would require nearly 
83,000,000 ties yearly for renewals; besides which 
perhaps 17,000,000 more are required for new 
constructions; taking the average price of hard 
and soft wood ties at 40 cents each, and the average 
cost of labor in takiag an old tie out and putting 
a new tie in the track at 15 cents, the cost of re- 
newals alone to the railroads of the United 
States would be nearly $45,650,000 per year. The 
only prospect of securing a reduction of this 
yearly expense appears to be in the adoption of 
ties treated by some preservative process, and 
the use of tie plates on ties made from the dura- 
ble soft woods. It must not be forgotten, how- 
ever, that cheapness of process is not the only 
consideration to be taken into account. The ob- 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 207 

ject sought by treating the ties is to increase 
their life in the track, and this can only be se- 
cured by adopting some method which has been 
thoroughly tried and is honestly carried out. 
European experience covers a period of forty to 
fifty years, and in the United States it has been 
carried on on a considerable scale for over four- 
teen years. The results prove that wood can be 
effectually protected from decay for a period long 
enough to add fifty to one hundred per cent, to 
the life of the tie. An important point which 
railroads using preservative processes should in- 
sist upon being faithfully carried out is the rec- 
ord of the life of the tie. This is one of the most 
neglected though essential points. To determine 
this the tie should be stamped on the end with 
the date it was treated. In France and Germany 
a galvanized nail, having the date stamped on 
the head, is driven in the top of the tie in addi- 
tion to stamping it and a similar practice is being 
adopted in the United States. 

Where the ties are thus marked the only 
further requirement is to record where they were 
laid and when they are removed, and all that is 
ne 'pessary is a simple blank by which the section 
foreman can report the date the tie was stamped, 
what portion of the road it was removed from, 
and the cause of removal.* 

During the last one hundred years scores of 
processes have been experimented with, chiefly 

*The Southem Pacific Railway Company seems to have kept 
the most complete records of treated ties of any road in the 
United States. 



208 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

in Europe, and hundreds of failures have occurred. 
It has been ascertained that the choice of chem- 
icals to be employed is limited to a few, and that 
not only must the most appropriate process be 
selected, in view of the character of the wood to 
be operated upon, its cost or value, and its subse- 
quent exposure, but also that minute care must 
be observed in the various operations incident to 
the process. The importance of this is evident 
when it is considered that time is the only sure 
test, and that ten or fifteen years must elapse be- 
fore it is positively known whether a thorough 
success has been achieved. 

In a general way the approved methods of pre- 
serving timber may be classed as follows: 

Kyanizing — or use of corrosive sublimate. 
Burnettizing — or use of chloride of zinc. 
Creosoting — or use of creosote oil. 
Boucherie — or use of sulphate of copper. 

There are a number of other methods, but at 
present burnettizing and creosoting appear to be 
the most used in the United States. 

There are a number of conditions which affect 
the value of preservative processes, as shown by 
the wide variation of the life of treated ties. 
Thus the time of the year the timber is cut 
and the amount of moisture in the tie at the 
time it is treated are among the known factors 
bearing on the results obtained by the treat- 
ment. 

The theory of the process of wood preservation 
is to withdraw the moisture or sap and to intro- 



STANDABDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 209 

duce into the pores of the wood an antiseptic to 
prevent decay. The American literature on the 
subject is limited; the report of the committee 
to the American Society of Engineers on June 
25th, 1885, and the paper read by Mr. Curtis be- 
fore the same Society on May 17th, 1899, are 
about as full as can at present be procured. On 
page 377 of the report above referred to, Mr. C. 
Latimer, Chief Engineer of the Atlantic & Great 
Western Railroad, stated that his experience 
showed ''that white oak ties last eight years 
on the grade and nine years on bridges." 
''Eleven years ago the white oak ties cost fifty 
cents, to-day (1885) they cost forty-five cents 
per tie."^ The same engineer on page 378 states: 
"If any process can be obtained which will 
double or add fifty per cent, to the life of cedar 
or hemlock ties, of course there is an immense 
economy in it." 

In regard to the price of cross ties, it must be 
borne in mind that while for a period of several 
years there may be no permanent change in the 
price, yet the source of supply is constantly 
being reduced, and each year a tie of poorer 
quality is being accepted; there must, therefore, 
come a time when contractors will realize that 
the source of supply is being reduced, and a 
permanent rise in the price will take place 



* A condition that tends to discourage investments in this di- 
rection is the uncertainty regarding the price that timber will 
command in the future. The cheapening of freight rates some- 
times enables the supply of cross ties to be procured from dis- 
tricts which a few years before were considered inaccessible. 



•210 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

which will doubtless be followed by a period of 
approximately uniform prices. Thus considered 
oak ties may be said to have advanced from 16 
to 65 cents per tie in the last forty years. 

Preservative processes it must be remembered 
will augment the supply of wooden ties, inas- 
much as some of the softer woods now rejected 
will be available when treated; thus the hem- 
lock of the Northern States and the lob lolly and 
short leaf pine of the Southern States properly 
treated will make excellent ties. 

There can be no doubt that wood preserving 
processes have been measureably successful. In 
the paper of Mr. Curtis before referred to he 
states: ''The experiei.ce of American roads 
with treated ties may be concluded to be gener- 
ally favorable. The Atchison, Topeka & Santa 
Fe Railway officials, after twelve years trial on a 
large scale, believe they are getting from eleven 
to twelve years service from mountain pine hav- 
ing a natural life of about four years, while from 
natural (untreated) white oak they get but six 
years in heavy main line service, and from cedar 
ten years under light service." Good results 
with treated ties are also reported from the fol- 
lowing roads: Union Pacific Railway; Chicago, 
Rock Island & Pacific Railway; Pittsburg, Ft. 
Wayne & Chicago Railway; Duluth & Iron Range 
Railway; Southern Pacific Railway, The expe- 
rience of the English, French and German rail- 
roads is that pine ties are made to last from fif- 
teen to thirty years by chemical treatment, the 
life depending upon the process adopted. 



STANDABD8 OF CONSTRUCTION. 211 

The cost of treating woods varies greatly in 
the different processes and methods; it is also 
affected by the price of chemicals used, the vol- 
ume of the business done, the skill and efficiency 
of the men employed, cost of coal, etc. The rail- 
road manager contemplating the adoption of a 
preservative process for his road will have to 
take into account the conditions on his line, con- 
sidering the character of the timber he can pro- 
cure, and to adopt the method and processes best 
suited for such timber. A German report on 
railways* gives the following information: 

TIES TREATED BY CHLORIDE OF ZINC. 

Kind of tie Oak Beech Pine 

Cost of crude tie $1.49 $1.01 $0.84 

Absorption, lbs 24.2 34 34 

Cost of treatment $0.13 $0.15 $0.16 

Total cost $1.62 $1.16 . $1.00 

Average life, years 15 9 12 

Cost per year $0,108 $0.13 $0,083 

TIES TREATED BY CREOSOTE. 

Absorption, lbs 15.4 66 50.6 

24.3 79.2 79.2 

Cost of treatment $0.21 $0.50 $0.43 

.29 .59 .57 

Total cost $1.70 $1.51 $1.27 

1.78 1.60 • 1.41 

Average life, years 24 30 20 

28 34 23 

Cost per year $0,071 $0.05 $0,063 

.063 .047 .061 

The life of ties can be prolonged to some ex- 
tent by a study of the nature of the various 

* Published in the * ' Organ of the Progress of Railroads, ' ' Se- 
ries 1897. Wiesbaden. 



21i> BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

woods used. In this relation Mr. B. E. Fernow, 
of the United States Department of Agriculture, 
Forestry Division aptly points out that not only 
the different species of wood in practical use 
show varying durability, that is, resistance to 
decay, but the same species exhibits variation 
according to the locality where it is grown and 
the part of the tree from which the wood is 
taken, and even its age seems to influence dura- 
bility. Young wood, he observes, is more sus- 
ceptible of decay than old wood; sap wood is 
less durable than the heart. The idea that 
young wood is more durable because it is young, 
which seems to prevail among railway managers, 
must, he says, be considered erroneous. On the 
contrary, young wood, which contains a large 
amount of albuminates, the food of fungi, is 
more apt to decay, other things being equal, 
than the wood of older timber. Sound, mature, 
well grown trees yield more durable timber than 
either young or very old trees. Rapid growth 
exhibited in broad annual rings and due to 
favorable soil and light conditions, yields the 
most durable timber in hard woods, and only as 
far as the growth in the virgin forest has been 
slow, ought there to be a difference in favor of 
second growth timber. In conifers, however, 
slow growth with narrow rings, which contain 
more of the dense summer wood in a given 
space, yields the better timber. In piling ties, 
he recommends that they should be placed in 
squares, with not over fifty ties in a pile, in such 
a manner that one tier shall contain six to nine 



STANDARDS OF CONSTBUGTION. 213 

ties, separated from each other by a space equal 
to about the width of the tie; the next tier to 
consist of one tie placed crosswise at each end of 
the first tier. The bottom tie should consist of 
two ties, or better, poles, to raise the pile from 
the ground. The piles should be five feet apart. 
The piling ground should be somewhere in the 
woods, or at least away from the sun, wind and 
rain, so as to secure a slow and uniform season- 
ing. If dried too rapidly, the wood warps and 
splits, the cracks collect water, and the timber is 
then easily attacked and destroyed by rot. He 
points out that the best method of obtaining 
proper seasoning, in a shorter time, without 
costly apparatus, is to immerse the prepared tim- 
ber in water from one to three weeks, in order 
to dissolve and leach out the fermentable mat- 
ter nearest the surface. This is best done in 
running water — if such is not at hand, a tank 
may be substituted, the water of which needs, 
however, frequent change. Timber so treated, 
like raft timber, will season more quickly, and is 
known to be more durable. The application of 
boiling water or steam is advantageous in leach- 
ing out the sap. Referring to the decay of rail- 
way ties, he ascribes the lack of durability to two 
causes, viz.: (1) a mechanical one, the breaking 
of the wood fiber by the flange of the rail and by 
the spikes, a.nd (2) a chemical or physiological 
one, the rot or decay which is due to fungus 
growth. These causes work either in combina- 
tion or, more rarely, independently. The cut- 
ting of the wood may be prevented by the use of 



L'U BUILDING AND REPAIRlJS(jt RAILWAYS. 

tie plates. The damage caused by the spikes 
may be lessened as pointed out elsewhere. In 
reference to drainage he suggests that rock bal- 
last is best drained, and hence the best record 
comes from such roadbeds; gravel is next best, 
and clay or loam the worst. On the other hand, 
where soft wood ties like chestnut are used, the 
hard rock ballast, while unfavorable to decay, 
reduces their life by pounding and cutting. Sand 
ballast seems to vary considerably; a sharp, 
coarse, silicious (not calcareous) sand with goo(5 
underdrainage should be next to gravel, while 
some reports give a heavy black soil and loam as 
better than sand. The reason why sand, although 
offering good drainage, is favorable to decay, 
may be sought in its great capacity for heat, 
which induces fermentation. Referring to wood 
preservatives, Mr. Fernow says in France wooden 
ties are universally subjected to preservatives; 
that similar practices are quite general in Eng- 
land and throughout Europe, caused by the scarc- 
ity of wood, and its great cost. He ascribes lack 
of interest in the subject in the United States to 
ignorance, to unwise economy, to cheapness of 
wooden ties, and to the fact that the flange cut- 
ting of the rail is even more destructive than de- 
cay. He recommends the use of tie plates in 
order to prevent this. 

The following table gives the size of ties used 
by some of the railroads in the United States: 





Length. 


Width. 


Thickness. 


Railway. 


Feel. Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Pennsylvania Railway 


.... 8 6 




7 


Southern Pacific Cypress . . 


10 


10 


7 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 215 

Length. Width. Thickness. 

Railway. Feet. Inches. Inches. Inches. 

Southern Pacific Cypress 9 10 7 

'* " Pine 8 8 6 

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe ..80 6 

Chicago & Northwestern 8 8 6 

New York Central 8 8 7 

Pittsburg & Lake Erie 8 6 9 7 

Ties are spaced differently on different roads. 
The following table gives the spacing used to a 
thirty foot rail by some of the roads in the 
United States: 

Pennsylvania, Main Line 14 wide ties. 

* ' Sidings 12 ties. 

Northern Pacific 16 ' ' 

Chesapeake & Ohio 18 '* 

Central Ry. of New Jersey 16 ** 

Southern Pacific, Main Line 17 * ' 

*' " Branches 15 *' 

The joint ties should be the largest ones and 
should be more closely placed than the others to 
give a better bearing for the rail ends. 

The following table gives the number of ties 
per mile of single track: 

CROSS TIES PER MILE. 
Center to Center. Ties per Mile. 

18 inches 3,520 

21 " 3,017 

24 ** 2,640 

27 - 2,347 

30 " 2,112 

No. of ties per 30-ft. raU 12 2,112 

" 14 2,464 

*' 16 2,816 

*« «« *' «< '* 18 3,108 



216 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 

Metal ties have been used to a large extent in 
some countries where timber is scarce or decays 
rapidly. There is a great variety of styles and 
patents, but in a general way they can be classed 
under three heads, viz: 

Longitudinal Supports. This method is accom- 
plished by placing iron plates under each rail, 
and holding the two rails together by means of 
rods or iron bars. The metal plates are of vari- 
ous designs and dimensions. This method has 
been used more in Germany and Austria than 
anywhere else; the Germans are not, as a rule, 
satisfied with it and it is being abandoned. The 
method is still favored by some Austrian roads. 

Bowls and Plates. This is a modified form of 
longitudinal supports. Cast iron bowl shaped 
plates are used in place of wrought iron or steel 
plates in the longitudinal method; these are con- 
nected by rods or bars of iron to hold the rails to 
gauge — they are mostly used in India and South 
America. 

Metal Ties are the third style and these are 
designed after the wooden cross tie, with such 
changes as become necessary in a change from 
wood to iron or steel. This form of metal tie is 
more largely used than any other. 

The latest reliable data of the mileage of metal 
ties in use in Europe is given in Bulletin No. 9 
United States Department of Agriculture, For- 
estry Division, and the figures given there are 
used in the following tables: 



STANDABDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 



217 



SUMMARY OF TRACK IN EUROPE LAID WITH 
METAL TIES. 

Countries. Longitudinal, Cross tie. Total miles, Total miles, 

miles. miles. 1894. 1890. 

England 73 73 70 

France 128 128 52 

Holland 322 322 329 

Belgium 176 176 115 

Germany 3,580 8,025 11,605 8,787 

Austria & Hungary.. 62i 154 216J 123 

Bosnia 12 12 

Switzerland 480 480 397 

Spain 7 7 7 

Portugal 1 1 J 

Sweden & Norway... i i i 

Denmark 18 18 18 

Russia ........ 2 7 9 

Turkey (Europe) 71 71 71 

'' " (Asia) 309 309 

Greece 28 28 

Totals 3,644i 9,811J 13,456 9,970 

SUMMARY OF TRACK LAID WITH METAL TIES BY 
GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS. 





1894 1 


1890 




Miles of 
metal track 


Total miles 
of track. 


Miles of 
metal track 


Total miles 
of track. 


Europe 


13,456 

2,401 

234 

14,586 

4,416 

2* 


137,000 

5.675 

12,000 

22,000 

21,500 

190,000 1 


9,970 

1,290 

186 

9,314 

3,764 

2 


132,071 
5 200 


Africa 


Australia 


10,640 
19 106 


Asia 


South America ' 

Central " 

West Indies ' 

Mexico 

North America 


20,701 
174,000 


Totals 


35,095 


388,175 


24,526 


361,718 



*Ten miles of track on the New York Central Railway are not 
included; the metal ties were purchased but were not yet laid. 



218 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

The following countries are the principal users 
of metal ties: 

Countries. Mileage, 1894. 

British India 13,655 

Grermany 11,605 

Argentine Republic . . 3,638 

Cape Colony 906 

Egypt 866 

All other countries 4,425 

Totals 85,095 

The report already referred to gave the follow- 
ing mileage of metal ties in the United States in 
the 1894 Summary of Railways using metal ties 
in the United States: 

Roads. Length in feet of track laid with metal ties. 

1894. 1899. 

Chicago & Western Indiana 1,000 none 

Delaware, Lackawanna & West- 
ern 250 

Long Island 950 

New York Central 1,320 Further use disc*t'd. 

Philadelphia & Reading 5,280 none 

Minor experiments (estimated). 500 Use discontinued. 

Totals 9,300 

European practice has proven the metal tie to 
be economically successful under the conditions 
which prevail there. 

To prevent the metal tie being lifted by frost 
or lowered when the ground thaws, the ballast 
must allow the water to drain off and through it 
readily; the German practice is to drain the water 
off down to a point below the frost line. The 
ballast should be stone broken to go through a 
2-inch ring. The tie should be well bedded in 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION, ^19 

the ballast to hold it in line. The experience 
abroad with metal ties, is that more labor is re- 
quired in tamping them the first year or two 
than in the case of wooden ties, but after this 
they require much less labor to tamp them 
than wooden ties do. There are several causes 
w^hich have prevented the introduction of the 
metal ties into the United States, the greatly in- 
creased first cost over wooden ties being the prin- 
cipal one; to assist in overcoming this they have 
been made too light to stand the effects of corro- 
sion. The cost of metal ties weighing 100 pounds 
was in 1894 from $2.00 to $2.25 per tie, depend- 
ing on the method of fastening'the rail to the tie. 
Another reason for their unpopularity in the 
United States is that they have been tried on 
roadbeds not properly ballasted and drained for 
metal ties and have been looked after by section 
men who were not favorably impressed with their 
utility. Further it may be stated that in a num- 
ber of cases their trial was on too small a scale. 

It is doubtless true that the use of the metal tie 
is probably a factor which will not receive prac- 
tical consideration from the hands of railroad 
managers in the United States for sometime in 
the future. The line along which present econom- 
ical practice points is the use of tie plates and 
rail braces on our untreated ties and this will 
probably be followed by a more general use of 
preservative processes to lengthen the life of the 
wooden tie. 

Following are some illustrations of metal ties: 
Fig. 95 illustrates the metal tie used by the Dela- 

13 Vol. 13 



220 BUILDING AND BE P AIMING RAILWAYS. 



^ 
o 







d 

C8 



•d 
a 

id 



d 

§ 

•a 



►J 

O >. 



^ 



c8 

d 

d 






s5 ^ 

EH g 



C3 



8TANDABDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 



221 



f^'-^-t 







->i'Vz!f 



-f «l 



K 

I 
I 













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5i^ 



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•a 

03 
O 



o 




O 



222 BUILDING AND BE PAIRING RAILWAYS. 

ware, Lackawanna & Western Railway. Fig. 96 
illustrates the metal tie used by the New York 
Central Railroad. 

The literature on metal ties is well given by 
Bulletins Nos. 4 and 9, United States Department 
of Agriculture, Forestry Division Synopses of re- 
ports on their use in the Netherlands and Switz- 
erland in the Engineering News for 1898. 

TIE PLATES. 

To prolong the life of the cross-tie by prevent 
ing the rail from cutting into the tie, tie plates 
have been introduced. There are three general 
styles, based on the following principles: First, 
ribs are placed on the under side of the tie plate 
running in the direction of the length of the 
plate, these are driven into the tie and separate, 
but do not break up the fiber of the wood; with 
this style of tie plate the greatest resistance to 
the movement of the plate is in the direction of 
across the tie or in the length of the rail; the 
spikes on both sides of the rail being connected 
by the tie plate, both resist the lateral move- 
ment of the rail and are assisted by the friction 
and end resistance of the ribs pressed into the 
tie. The spikes used with this tie plate are sub- 
jected to the wearing action of the rail, but to a 
less extent than without it. Some forms of this 
style have a rib which comes in contact with the 
outside of the rail base to assist the spikes in re- 
sisting the lateral motion of the rail. Fig. 97 
illustrates an example of this style. Second, 
lugs are placed on the under side in such a posi- 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 



223 



tion that their largest surface is resisted by the 
end wood of the tie when there is a lateral press- 




FiG. 97. 

WOL.HAUPTER TIE PLATE. 
Witli rib to resist the lateral motion of the rail. 

ure produced by a passing train; on the top of 
the plate there is placed a lug against which the 
outside of the base of the rail is placed. The 
lateral movement of the rail is resisted by the 
spikes as in the first case, and also the greater 
resistance of the lugs against the end wood of 
the tie. The base of the rail, during its lateral 
movements, is resisted by the lug on top of and 
extending across the plate, thus relieving the 
spikes of the wearing action of the base of the 




Fig. 98. 

GOLDIE CLAW TIE PLATE. 
With lug to prevent the lateral movement ol the rail.] 



224 BUILDING AND BE PAIRING RAILWAYS. 



rail. Fig. 98 illustrates an example of this 
style. Third, this method aims to have the 




Fig. 99. 



THE C. A. C. TIE PLATE. 




Fig. 100. 

THE "SERVIS • TIE PLATE. 



< 




Fig. 101. 

WOLHAUPTER ARCH GIRDER TIE PLATE. 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 225 

plate bolted or spiked to the tie and the rail fast- 
ened rigidly to the tie plate. This is Sandberg's 
type of tie plate. Figs. 99, 100 and 101 illus- 
trate other makes of the first two styles. The 
same objection applies to the third style of tie 
plate, which was found to the use of screws in- 
stead of spikes to fasten the rail to the ties; by 
the use of screws the rails were held rigidly to 
the tie and the wave action produced by the 
train on the rail caused the tie to work more (or 
pump the ballast) than where spikes were used, 
thus increasing the cost of track repairs. 

Where tie plates are not used on all the ties 
in a track they will be found of special benefit 
under the following conditions: On heavy grades 
and sharp curves they prevent the cutting of the 
tie and canting the rail and preserve the gauge 
without the use of rail braces. In tunnels where 
the moisture tends to soften the tie, they pre- 
vent the rail cutting into it and preserve the 
gauge. On swampy ground where the roadbed 
yields under the weight of the train, they pre- 
vent ties being cut into by the rail, which leads 
to excessive creeping of the rails. On long 
bridges, elevated roads, in busy freight yards, 
where trains are frequent, track deteriorates rap- 
idly, and the cost of labor making repairs and 
renewals is large. At road and street crossings 
where the planking keeps the ties moist they 
deteriorate quickly. 

Ties which have been cut into by the rail can 
be used again by adzing them down, plugging 
the spike holes with hard wood and using a tie 
plat€. 



226 BUILDING AND EEPAlRING RAILWAYS. 

Of the various styles each has its advantages 
and objections. The friends of the first style 
claim that the metal is not properly distributed 
in the second and they will sometimes buckle 
when a heavy transverse strain is produced by a 
passing train on a curve; those favorable to the 
second style claim that the lack of a shoulder to 
support the base of the rail and not having the 
resistance of the end wood of the tie to oppose a 
movement of the tie plate does not hold the 
track to gauge as well as the second style of 
plate and permits the spikes to be injured more. 
There are, it may be ^id, conditions where each 
claim is well founded, and the selection of style 
will depend on the conditions of traffic, grade 
and alignment. 

RAILS. 

The rails now used are manufactured of steel, 
iron having gone out of use on account of the 
greater length of life of steel and the price being 
reduced to a point where there is no longer a 
saving in the use of iron. Formerly each road 
had its own standard section for the rails used. 
This resulted in a great v^ariety of forms of sec- 
tions, some of which, however, were practically 
the same, differing only in minor details. 

In 1873 the American Society of Civil Engi- 
neers appointed a committee to report upon the 
forms, sizes, manufacture, tests, endurance and 
breakage of rails and also the comparative econ- 
omy of iron and steel. In 1883 the same body 
appointed another committee to consider the 



STANDABDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 227 

proper relation to each other of railway wheels 
and rails. This led to the appointment of a third 
committee to prepare designs for standard rail 
sections. In Appendix J there is a cut showing 
the section adopted and the dimensions for rails 
of different weights. Mr. E. E. R. Tratman in his 
work on '' Track and Track Work " speaks of rails 
as follows: " Tie plates should be used with heavy 
traffic, as the attempt to get a very wide base 
support in the rail flange usually results in a 
section which is not adapted to good rolling. 
Flat-topped rail heads have been advocated, but 
the metal in the head does not get so much work 
or squeeze from the rolls, and is thus of less 
dense texture on top than is desirable. This was 
found with rails rolled in England 25 or 30 years 
ago for the New Orleans & Chattanooga Railway. 
In addition to this, the lateral play of the wheels 
would soon wear the top to a curved section. 
The usual top radius is 12 or 14 inches, though 
the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway makes 
it 18 inches, and any radius less than 12 inches 
is objectionable. The best distribution of the 
metal is probably that of the American Society 
of Civil Engineers recommended sections, pro- 
vided that the rails are of good material and 
thoroughly rolled, the rolling being as slow and 
cold as practicable. 

''The rapid increase in weight of locomotives 
and cars and train loads has led to the use of 
heavier and stiff er rails in the sense of girders to 
carry the increased loads, but in many cases 
without correspondingly wider heads to sustain 



228 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RMLWAYS. 

the increased wheel pressure ratios per square 
inch of surface contact between rails and wheels. 
The resulb in some such cases has been that the 
metal of both tires and rails has been overtaxed, 
excessive wear and flow taking place, and neither 
wheels nor rails giving as good service as had 
been expected. With this in view, Mr. P. H. 
Dudley designed a set of rail sections whose type 
is shown by the 100-lb. rail of the New York 
Central Railway. It will be noticed that the 
fillets are of large radius, and that the narrowest 
part of the web is above the centre line. This 
gives extra resistance to twisting, so that the 
head will not bend over the web, nor the web 
over the base. The following is from a state- 
ment by Mr. Dudley: 

''The static pressures under passenger car 
wheels on rail heads 2i to 2f inches wide, range 
from 30,000 to 100,000 lbs. per square inch, while 
those of locomotive driving wheels range from 
110,000 to 150,000 lbs. To sustain such wheel 
pressures without undue flow and wear, requires 
not only broad heads, but a high grade of metal 
in the rails. Comparisons of tire records on the 
New York Central Railway before and after the 
use of the Dudley 80-lb. rail (5^ inches high, 
5 inches width of base, 211 inches width of head 
and h inch corners of head) show that w^ith an 
increase of 40 per cent, in weight per driving 
wheel the mileage per \q inch of wear per tire is 
about the same for the heavier locomotives on 
the 80-lb. rails, as formerly for the lighter loco- 
motives on the 65-lb. rails. The former carried 



STANDAllDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 229 

17,600 lbs. per wheel, and averaged 19,300 miles 
per -h inch wear of tire. The latter carried 13,- 
360 lbs. per wheel, and averaged 19,400 miles 
per A inch wear. Since the general use of this 
80-lb. rail, the locomotives rarely go to the shop 
to have the driving wheel tires turned unless 
other repairs are needed, the wear of the tires no 
longer determining when the engines must go to 
the shop, as was the case when running on the 
65-lb. rails. The mileage before re-turning the 
tires is from 150,000 to 185,000 miles. These 
facts show the value of the broad heads in in- 
creasing the life of tires as well as of rails. 

'' Mr. Sandberg, the European rail expert, favors 
wide heads, with large corners, and his type of 
section is represented by the 72-lb. rail of the 
Canadian Pacilic Railway. In 1894 he changed 
his sections somewhat in detail, his modified 
100-lb. rail being 5f inches high, %\ inches wide, 
with a head 3 inches wide, having i-inch top 
corners. He increased the width of the head, but 
retained the round form with large corners and 
a top radius of 6 inches. He admits that sharper 
corners may be used with the American type of 
rolling stock, having the short, rigid wheel base of 
the trucks instead of the long, rigid wheel base of 
European cars with fixed axles, but it may be 
doubted whether this distinction is of much im- 
portance. The width of rail base was increased, 
so as to avoid the use of tie plates, for while he 
advocates their use, he has found it difficult to 
get trhem introduced by European railways. The 
rail section has suffered in consequence, and even 



230 BUILDING AND REPjURING RAILWAYS. 

with oak ties (and almost certainly with softer 
ties) the rails will still cut under heavy traffic 
and wheel loads. One reason for the disfavor 
with which tie-plates are regarded in Europe is 
probably the size and weight and cost, and the 
difficulty of securing flat plates firmly to the tie, 
so as not to cause rattling. It may be mentioned 
that some of the so-called Sandberg 'Goliath' 
rails are modified from the original to a section 
for which Mr. Sandberg disclaims responsibility. 

" Double-Head Rails, In Europe the double- 
headed rail, carried in cast-iron chairs, was early 
designed, having two symmetrical heads, so that 
the rail could be reversed and both ends be util- 
ized for w^ear. Some of the sections were of 
hour-glass section, with two pear-shaped heads. 
The indentation of the lower head by the chairs, 
however, made the turned rails very rough rid- 
ing, and the rails were also found liable to break, 
so that as early as 1858 the bull-head section 
was introduced, having the lower head only large 
enough to give a seat in the chair and a hold for 
the wooden key or wedge which secures the rail 
in the chair. Some years ago about ten miles of 
80-lb. iron double-headed rails were laid on the 
Boston & Worcester Railway (now part of the 
Boston & Albany Railway), but after ten years' 
service the track was relaid with T-rails. The 
bull-head rail is now the standard in England, 
and is also used somewhat extensively in Euro- 
pean countries, India, etc. The Pennsylvania 
Railway has some of the 90-lb. bull-head rails of 
the London & Northwestern Railway, laid for ex- 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 231 

perimental purposes, some on steel ties, and 
others in cast-iron chairs on wooden ties, but 
this track has not been able to stand the heavy 
traffic on this road. One of the great objections 
to these rails is that they require two heavy cast- 
iron chairs (weighing 26 to 56 pounds each) on 
every tie, merely to hold the rail up. These 
chairs involve much really useless material, and 
the wear of the rails in the chairs limits their 
life, being even more than the wear at the joints. 
Many of these rails have rounded heads, but in 
some of the modern heavy sections the head has 
vertical sides and sharper top corners. 

Many countries now recognize the disadvant- 
ages of the bull-head rail, and are adopting a 
more economical, but equally efficient track of 
T-rails on metal tie plates. In England, how- 
ever, the erroneous idea very generally prevails 
that a T-rail track is in itself unsafe, and this 
has even led to the introduction of double-head 
rails for colonial railways, involving much un- 
necessary expenditure, which would have been 
better applied to the construction of a greater 
mileage of a more suitable type of track. The 
English track, as built, is very strong and sub- 
stantial, but very expensive, and an equally good 
track can be made and maintained at less ex- 
pense with heavy T-rails. Mr. Freund, of the 
Eastern Railway of France, has made investiga- 
tions from which he concluded that theory and 
experiment show that a T-rail secured to oak 
ties by screw spikes is as safe from lateral dis- 
placement as a bull-head rail in chairs or a T- 



i>32 BUILDING AND REPAIIUNG RAILWAYS. 

rail with tie plates on pine ties. He further con- 
cluded that the T-rail comes nearer to giving its 
proper service than the bull-head rail, because 
the life of the latter is limited by the wear of the 
surfaces in contact wath the chairs, and not by 
the wear of the running surface. In most Euro- 
pean countries, except England, T-rails are exten- 
sively used, but they are very generally of poor 
design and very much too light for the traffic, 
and the consequent poor results in service are 
among the reasons for the disfavor with which 
the T-rail section is regarded for main tracks in 
Europe. European engineers are not, as a rule, 
well informed as to modern American track, or 
the successful results of service of good rails 
under severe conditions of fast, heavy and con- 
tinual traffic. In some cases a narrow-based T- 
rail has been adopted, carried in cast-iron chairs, 
very similar to those for double-headed rails, and 
secured by large wooden keys, which make an 
objectionable fastening." 

In Appendix J the sections of rails used by 
several American and foreign roads are given; 
these sections differ from that adopted by the 
American Society of Engineers, some very mate- 
rially. Some fifty American roads, most of them 
western, have adopted the standard section recom- 
mended by the American Society of Engineers. 

The tendency is toward heavier rails. In 
speaking of this, and the road-bed on which they 
are used, Mr. Tratman remarks: ''In regard to 
the growing increase in the use of heavy rails, it 
may be pointed out that while it is most desira- 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 233 

ble to have rails of ample weight for the traffic, 
the rail is only one part of the track, and that 
improvements in ballast, ties, fastenings, joints, 
etc., are of equal importance in the construction 
and maintenance of a first-class track. The lay- 
ing of rails should also be very carefully and 
thoroughly done, though this is a point that is 
frequently neglected to a greater or less extent. 
For instance, new rails carelessly laid on old ties 
may be given a wavy surface, or permanent set, 
due to careless handling or to uneven bearing 
surfaces, which cannot afterwards be remedied 
and w^ill materially reduce the beneficial results 
intended to be obtained by the new rails. With 
an ordinarily good track, on which light rails are 
replaced by heavier rails, the work of mainten- 
ance and renewals should be very much reduced, 
owing to the increased weight and stiffness of 
the rails, which reduces the deflections, so that 
the joints can be kept in better condition. The 
number of ties should not be reduced for heavier 
rails, as the rail should not be independently 
considered as a bridge or girder resting upon 
piers. A fairly large number of ties and fasten- 
ings greatly facilitates the maintenance and ad- 
justment of surface, line and gauge to ensure an 
easy riding track, more so than when the supports 
and fastenings are 33 to 36 inches apart, as with 
English track.'' There have been some trials of 
rails longer than 30 feet, which is the standard 
length. Some roads are experimenting with 60 
foot rails and others with 4 5 -foot rails. At this 
date the experience is not considered favorable to 



234 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS 

their adoption, as the expense of handling them 
proves to be greater per ton or foot than for the 
30 foot lengths, beside which they become bent 
more easily. 

The street railway companies have made con- 
tinuous rails by electric welding, and some ex- 
periments in this line have been made by steam 
railroads. Mr. Tratman describes one as follows: 
" Continuous rails, with the ends welded together 
in the track, are being tried on street railways, 
and some experiments have been made on steam 
railways with rails laid without expansion spacing 
and spliced by riveted angle bars. In June, 
1889, Mr. T. T. Gleaves laid on the Durham Di- 
vision of the Norfolk & Western Railway^ three 
miles of the continuous * self-surf acing ' track 
patented in 1886 by Mr. P. Noon an, a section 
foreman. The rails were 56-lbs. per yard, laid on 
ordinary ties completely buried in the earth, and 
the spike heads were left |-inch clear above the 
rail base, so that the wave motion or undulation 
of the rails would not affect the spikes or ties. 
As this motion was in advance of the wheels, 
there Avas no battering of the ties, and the mo- 
tion of a train was said to have been as smooth 
and easy as on heavy rails in stone ballast. The 
joints were secured by splice bars with |-inch 
rivets, making the rails continuous and without 
any allowance for expansion. At each end of 
the three-mile section were switch points to 
allow for the expansion of long stretches of rail, 
and at frogs and switches at stations of course 
the rails could move longitudinally. The track 



^ STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 235 

was turfed over, and three-inch terra cotta drain 
tiles were inserted to carry the water out beyond 
the track. After being laid, the track was not 
lined or surfaced for eighteen months, the only 
maintenance expense being for a watchman, al- 
though engines weighing 104,000 lbs. were fre- 
quently run over it at a speed of fifty miles per 
hour. The ties were found to decay more 
quickly by being buried in the earth and becom- 
ing water-logged, as might have been expected, 
and the track got somewhat out of surface, owing 
mainly to the fact that it was not laid on a com- 
pact roadbed, but in wet clay cuts and on banks 
that settled in sags. During the same period of 
eighteen months, there were expended $1,890 in 
labor for keeping the adjoining three-mile sec- 
tions in fair condition. With such a track on 
good ballast some interesting results might be 
expected." 

The Illinois Steel Company's standard specifi- 
cations for steel rails adopted January 1st, 1897, 
are as follows: 

Section 1. The section of the rail throughout its entire length 
shall conform to the American Society of Civil Engineers Stand- 
ard ( ) pounds per yard. 

The fit of the fishing or male templet shall be perfectly main- 
tained. When the rolls are new the section of the rail may be 
one sixty -fourth (g^ of an inch low. As the rolling proceeds, a 
variation not exceeding one-thirty-second (3^2) ^^ ^^^ inch in ex- 
cess of height over templet may be permitted in a delivery of 
ten thousand (10,000) tons of rails, after which the rolls must be 
reduced to standard height of such sections. The standard of 
measure to be Brown & Sharp United States Standard Steel 
Vernier Caliper Rule. 

WEIGHTS. 

Sec. 2. The weight of the rail shall be kept as near to ( ) 
pounds per yard as is practical after complying with Section No. 
1. The rails shall be accepted and settled for according to actual 
weights. 

14 Vol. 13 



l36 building and REPAIRING RAILWAYS^ 

LENGTHS. 

Sec. 3. The staudard length of rail shall be thirty (30) feet, at 
a temperature of seventy (70) degrees Fahrenheit. Shorter 
rails having length of twenty-nine (29) to twenty-two (22) feet, 
inclusive, shall be accepted to the extent of ten (10) per cent, of 
the entire order. 

A variation in length of one-fourth (i) inch over or under the 
specified length will be allowed. 

CAMBERING AND STRAIGHTENING. 

Sec. 4. Care to be taken in cambering the rails so as to reduce 
the amonnt of work in the straightening press to a minimum. 
The rails must be straight in all directions as to both surface and 
line, without twists or kinks. 

FINISH. 

Sec. 5. The rails must be smooth on the head and base, and 
free from all mechanical defects and flaws, and must be saw^ed 
square at the ends; the burrs made by the saws must be carefully 
chipped and filed off, particularly under the head and on the top 
of the flange, to insure proper lit of the angle bars. 

DRILLING. 

Sec. 6. The drilling for the bolts to be in strict conformity 
with the blue print attached, or the dimensions given. 

Holes imperfectly drilled to be filed to proper dimensions. 
All holes must be accurate in every respect. 

BRANDING. 

Sec. 7. The section number, name of maker, year and month, 
to be rolled on the side of the web. The number of the heat to 
be stamped in the side of the web. 

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. 
Sec. 8. The chemical composition of standard rails under 

seventy (70) pounds ])er yard to be as follows: 

Carbon 37 to .45 

Phosphorous not to exceed 10 

Sulphur not to exceed 05 

Silicon.. 07 to .15 

Manganese 70 to 1.10 

'I'he chemical composition of rails seventy (70) pounds and 

over per yard to be as follows: 

Carbon 45 to .55 

Phosphorous not to exceed 10 

Sulphur not to exceed 05 

Silicon 10 to .20 

Manganese 80 to 1.00 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 237 

TEST INGOTS. 

Sec. 9. From each heat one test ingot shall be cast 2ix2ix8 
inches long. This to be drawn down at one heat by hammer- 
ing to a test piece three-eighths (|) inches square by eighteen (18) 
to twenty (20) inches long. The same when cold to be required 
to bend to a right angle without breaking. This bar must be 
bent by blows from a hammer. 

CUTTING TO BLOOMS. 

Sec. 10. After cutting off or allowing for the sand on the top 
end of the ingot, at least twelve (12) inches more of seemingly 
solid steel shall be cut off that end of the bloom. If after cutting 
such length the steel does not look solid, the cutting shall be con- 
tinued until it does. 

INSPECTION. 

Sec. 11. The inspector representing the purchaser shall have 
free entry to the works of the manufacturer at all times while 
his contract is being filled and shall have all reasonable facilities 
afforded to satisfy him that the rails are being made in accord- 
ance with these specifications. 

The manufacturer shall furnish daily the carbon determina- 
tions of each heat and a complete chemical analysis of at least 
one heat of each day and night turn in which each element is to 
be determined. 

NO. 2 RAILS. 

Sec. 12. The requirements for No. 2 rails shall be the same as 
for No. 1, except that they will be accepted with a flaw in the 
head not exceeding one-fourth {\) inch, and a flaw in the flange 
not exceeding one-half (i) inch in depth. 

No. 2 rails to the extent of five per cent. (5^) of the entire 
order will be received. 

The aim of manufacturers of rails is to produce 
hardness to resist wear and toughness to resist 
fracture. Carbon gives the metal hardness, and 
each individual designer has his particular opinion 
as to the exact amount of carbon to use to pro- 
cure the best result. The heavier the rail the 
larger the per cent, of carbon which must be 
used. Silicon makes the steel fluid and dense, 
this producing solid ingots and reducing crystalli- 
zation. Sulphur tends to make the metal seamy 
and phosphorous makes it brittle. Manganese is 



23S BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

used for chemical purposes. Not only the opin- 
ion of the designer, but the chemical constituents 
and their proportions in the ores used together 
with the Aveight of rail to be produced, affect the 
proportions of the chemical constituents of the 
rail. The economical question in the specifica- 
tions of steel rails has been stated very clearly by 
Mr. Ashbel Welch, Chairman of the Rail Commit- 
tee of the American Society of Engineers as fol- 
lows: '' An unwise saving of a dollar to the manu- 
facturer, or a little unfaithfulness in the work- 
man, will probably reduce the value of the rails 
ten or twenty dollars. Ten or fifteen per cent, 
added to the ordinary work on rails would double 
their value. An expert rail maker knows this 
very well, but he cannot put the $10 extra work 
on a ton in order that it may be worth $60 more 
to the purchaser, who will not allow him any 
part of the $10 out of the $60 he makes. The 
railway agent who purchases may also know all 
this, but he cannot follow his own judgment, for 
he knows his directors will say he paid $10 more 
than the market price. It is thus that the inter- 
ests of stockholders are sacrificed." 

The life of steel rails cannot be determined by 
the number of years they have been in use; those 
on one road may have had, during a given period, 
two or three times the number of trains passing 
over them than those in another road had. The 
tonnage which has passed over the rail is a bet- 
ter means of comparing the relative value of the 
rail and its life. Mr. A. M. Wellington states on 
this subject: ''The life of first-class 60 to 80- 



STANDARDS OF CONSTBUCTION. 239 

pound steel rails was given by Wellington in his 
' Economical Theory of Railway Location ' (1887) 
as about 150,000,000 to 200,000,000 tons. There 
are from 10 to 15 lbs. of metal, or f-inch to 
f-inch depth of head available for wear, and abra- 
sion takes place at the rate of about 1 lb. per 
10,000,000 tons, or r\-inch per 14,000,000 to 
15,000,000 tons of traffic. The rate of wear is 
increased about 75 per cent, by the use of sandbj 
the locomotives. The failure of modern rails, as a 
rule, is due more to deformation of section at 
and near the joints than to abrasion proper, and 
this deformation and crushing are largely due to 
the heavily loaded driving wheels, the wear from 
which is estimated at 50 to 75 per cent, of the 
total. Heavy freight engines may have three or 
four driving axle loads of 30,000 to 38,000 lbs. 
on a wheel base of 12 to 15 feet. The area of 
contact between the driving wheels and rails is 
an oval about 1 x f inch, or with worn tires or 
worn rails IxH inches, with an area of 1.07 
square inch. The maintenance of rails ought 
not to exceed i cent or 1 cent per train mile, 
but it is very generally as much as 3 cents, 
owing partly to work on side tracks. About half 
the metal in the rail head is available for wear, 
but the full depth of wear is not obtainable in 
main track, as the rails would then be too rough 
for service; about i-inch is the limit of wear in 
main track, the rails being then removed to 
branch or side tracks." 

In Appendix J the following tables relating to 
rails and fastenings are given: 



'J40 BUILDING AND BEPAIHING EAILWAYS, 

Table No. 1 ; Tons per mile and feet of track 

per ton, of rails of different weight per yard. 

Table No. 2; Number of splice bars and bolts 

for one mile of single track. 
Table No. 3; Number of fastenings required to 

a ton of rails of different weight per yard. 
Table No. 4; Pounds and kegs of railroad 
spikes required for one mile of track, given 
for different sized spikes and rails of differ- 
ent weight. 
Table No. 5; Gives the weight per 1,000 for 
standard track bolts of various sizes, and for 
bolts with square and hexagon nuts. 
Table No. 6; Gives the average number of track 
bolts of various sizes in a keg of 200 pounds. 
Table No. 7; The amount of expansion of steel 
rails and the size of the shim for each 
change of ten degrees of temperature from 
30 to 130 Fahrenheit. 
Appendix J also gives the practice of the. 
Northern Pacific Railway, in allowing for expan- 
sion; here the rule specifies that the thermome- 
ter must be read in the shade, which would 
make the allowance for expansion greater than 
if the reading was taken in the sun and is a safer 
practice. 

SPIKES. 

There have been numerous methods tried to 
fasten the rail to the cross-tie. Screws of differ- 
ent patterns and other devices have been tried, 
but the general practice is to use the ordinary 
railroad spike shown in Fig. 102, cut A. This is 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 



241 



not, however, an altogether satisfactory spike, but 
when the first cost and cost of maintenance are 
taken into consideration, it is considered more 
satisfactory than anything yet produced. Fig. 
102, cut C, show^s the way the fibre of the wood 
is damaged by driving an ordinary railroad spike 
into a cross-tie. The Goldie spike, Fig. 102, cut 
B, illustrates a spike designed to accomplish all 
that the ordinary railway spike does and yet not 
damage the fibre of the wood to so great an ex- 
tent. 





CutA. 



Cute. 



CutB. 

Fig. 102. 
The holding power of the spike depends on the 
nature of the tie, the conditions under which the 



LM2 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

spike is driven, and the length of time it has been 
in the track. 

The force exerted by the rail when a train 
passes over it tends to lift the spike oat of the 
wood; this takes place on a tangent, and is in- 
dependent of any lateral pressure produced by 
the swaying motion of the train. The holding 
power of newly driven spikes has been found by 
experiments to vary from 1,500 pounds to 7,000 
pounds, the latter being one of those cases, prob- 
ably, where the conditions were more favorable 
than exist in actual practice. In a good oak or 
pine tie the resistance of a newly driven spike 
for a 75-lb. rail would probably be about 3,500 
pounds. 

RAIL JOINTS AND FASTENINGS. 

The best method of fastening the rails together 
is a controversy not yet settled. There are a 
number of different methods in use. With the 
constantly increasing weight of engines the 
method of connecting the rails becomes a vital 
question. 

The fish plate is used only where the traffic is 
light and heavy locomotives have not yet been 
introduced. The angle bar (Fig. 103) is a decided 
improvement on the fish plate, and is used by 
roads having a moderately heavy traffic; it gives 
lateral stiffness to the joint and a greater bearing 
surface on the tie. The continuous rail joint 
(Fig. 104) gives a greater bearing on the tie and 
a support to the base of the rail in addition to 
the advantS^ges of the angle bar; this form of joint 



STANDABDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 



243 




16 

Fig. 103. 

Angle Bars used on a 75-lb. rail of American Society of Civil Engineers' Standard. 




Fig. 104. 

CONTINUOUS RAIL JOINT. 



244 



BUILDING AND BE PAIRING BAILWAYS, 



is used on a number of roads some of which have 
the heaviest engines and greatest number of 
trains in this country. Figures 105, 106, and 
107 represent the Weber rail joint, the Truss rail 
joint and the Common Sense rail joint, all de- 




Section 



Fig. 105. 

WEBER RAIL JOINT. 



Side View. 




Fig. 106. 

TRUSS RAIL JOINT. 




Section. Side View. 

Fig. 107. 

"COMMON SENSE" RAIL JOINT. 



Sl\iNDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 



245 



B\ 






1- 




o 


si^i : 


o 


flj " 


u. 




1£ 


I 


UJ 




CL 




cn 




tn 


it 




246 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 

signed to accomplish the same object as the con- 
tinuous rail joint. They are used by roads having 
heavy traffic. Fig. lOS gives a view of a joint 
adopted by the Chicago & Northwestern Railway 
Company to secure the advantages claimed for 
the continuous rail joint without having to dis- 
card the angle bars; the objectionable feature 
with this fastening is that the upward wave mo- 
tion has no greater resistance at the joint than 
with the angle bar alone; the plate assists in 
preventing the joint becoming low and adds 
lateral stiffness when the spikes are well driven. 

There are two functions to be performed by 
rail joints. One is to resist the rapid blows from 
the wheels of the engines and cars of fast pas- 
senger trains, and the other the slower blows from 
freight trains. The weight on the driving wheels 
of the new passenger locomotives of the high 
speed type is less than the new style of locomo- 
tives for freight. The latest style of freight loco- 
motives for the Illinois Central Railway, for in- 
stance, will have a weight on each driver of 
24,000 pounds, while the new high speed pas- 
senger locomotives for the Lake Shore & Michigan 
Southern Railway will have a weight on each 
driver of 22,000 pounds. A 60,000 pound capa- 
city car fully loaded will have from 11,000 to 
12,000 pounds weight per wheel. In the case of a 
tonnage train consisting of a twelve wheel engine 
and one hundred loaded cars (as on the Illinois 
Central Railway) passing over a rail joint, there 
will be four blows of 24,000 pounds made by the 
engine and 260 blows of from 11,000 to 12,000 



STANDABDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 247 

pounds made by the wheels of the freight cars. 
When this is considered the importance of a 
good rail joint becomes apparent. 

The length of rail joints varies from 48 inches 
with six bolts to 24 inches with four bolts. The 
spacing of the ties under the rail joints is not 
uniform; some roads place the joint between the 
ties, others place a tie directly under the joint; 
theoretically the former will permit the rail to 
respond to the w^ave action more fully than the 
latter, and those advocating the first style of 
spacing the ties claim it makes an easier riding 
track on account of the wave motion of the rail 
not being so greatly interfered with. The ques- 
tion of even* and brokenf rail joints appears 
from the practice to tend to a decision in favor 
of even joints on tangents and broken joints on 
curves. 

Track bolts are made to a standard size; some 
roads, however, have their own design. In Ap- 
pendix J, Table No. 5 gives the weight per 1,000 
bolts with square and hexagon nuts. Table No. 
6 gives the sizes used for rails of different weight, 
and the number in a keg of 200 pounds. Fig. 109 
illustrates the styles of track bolts used. 

The constant vibration at rail joints when 
trains are passing over them, causes the nuts to 
turn and the bolts to become loose; this prevents 



* When both rails in a track are laid so that the joints are 
directly opposite each other, the track is said to be laid with 
"even" joints. 

t When the joint in one rail is laid opposite the center of the 
other rail, the track is said to be laid with * 'broken'' joints. 



-48 BUILDINO AND llEPAIEING RAILWAYS. 




Length — 

Square Nut. 




.Hexagonal Nut. 

Fig. 109. 

TRACK BOLTS. 

the joint fastening from doing the work for 
which it was designed. To overcome this, vari- 
ous styles of nut-locks have been used; in a gen- 
eral way they can be placed in four classes: 

First — The use of washers partially made of 
rubber or papier mache. 

Second — Metal washers with a spring action 
which are designed to keep the nut pressed tight 
against the threads of the screw on the bolt. 
(Fig. 110 represents the ''Verona" nut-lock, 
which is of this type.) 




@i@ 




Fig. 110. 



STYLES OF "VERONA" NUT LOCKS. 



STANDAEDS OF CONSTBUCTION. 



249 




Third — An elastic nut designed 
to clasp the bolt and hold this nut 
in position by the increased fric- 
tion between the threads on the 
nut and bolt. (Fig. Ill represents 
the ''National/' which is of this 
class. ) 

Fourth — A nut with an elongated base forming 
a spring to keep the nut pressed tight against the 
threads on the bolt. (Fig. 112 represents the 



Fig. 111. 

Elastic Self-locking 
Steel Nut ('•National") 





Fig. 112. 

JOINT SPRING NUT LOCK. 



joint spring nut of this class.) Loose nuts not 
only mean loose and low joints, but wear on the 
angle bars and rails and broken joint bolts, and 
hence are to be obviated. 



RAIL BRACES. 



To keep the track to gauge, rail braces are 
used on curves, and, if soft wood ties are used, 



250 



BUILDING AND EEPAluING RAILWAYS. 



they can be used to advantage on tangents. 
They should always be used for the guard rails 
and lead rails of turnouts or switches. They 
should be well designed for their work, or the 
outer edge of the rail will cut into the tie, as 
shown by Fig. 113. Two designs of forged steel 
braces for rails are shown in Fig. 114. The tie 




Fig. 113. 



Shows how a rail-brace will fail to support the rail where it cuts into the 
tie, or the rail Drace is not properly designed. 




Fig. 114. 

FORGED STEEL RAIL BRACES. 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 



251 



plate when used reduces to some extent the ne- 
cessity for rail braces by giving a hard surface 
into which the edge of the base of the rail will 
not cut when a lateral strain is exerted by the 
train; it also assists in holding the track to gauge 
by bringing the resistance of the spikes on both 
sides of the rail to oppose a lateral movement of 
the rail. 

SWITCHES. 

In the selection of switches there are three 
styles to choose from, the stub switch, the split 
switch and switches of special design or patents, 
varying from the first two. The stub switch 
consists of two movable rails connected by rods 
to hold them to gauge and cause both rails to be 
moved parallel when thrown by the lever; 
the ends of these rails rest on a head block or 
chair. The main line rails and the rails leading 
to the side track are held firmly by the head 
block or chair, Fig. 115 represents this style of 
switch. The split switch is known as the old 
English Point Switch, which has been in use in 




Fig. 115. 



STUB SWITCH. 
Showing head blocks and ground throw for moving switch xdAis, 
15 Vol. 13 



252 



BUILDING AND EEPAIRINO RAILWAYS, 



England since 1830 and is now coming into gen- 
eral use in the United States. The Lorenz 
Switch and the Clarke- Jeffrey Switch are split 
switches. Fig. 116 illustrates this style. The 




Fig. 116. 

SPLIT SWITCH. 
With Pony Switch Stand.— Suitable for yards. 

third class of switches is designed for special 
purposes; are protected by patents and they 
mostly aim to give a continuous rail for the main 
line. MacPherson's Improved Safety Switch and 
Frog is devised to lift the train over the rail of 
the main line without the use of a frog* when 
being switched on to a siding. This switch is in 
use on some of the great railroad systems. The 
Wharton Switch is designed to leave the main 
line rails unbroken at the switch stand, but a 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 253 

frog is used where the inside rail of the side 
track crosses the main line rail. It has been in 
use for a number of years and is well known. 
The Duggan Switch is designed to accomplish 
the same purpose as the Wharton Switch, by 
having the switch rail work in a vertical instead 
of a horizontal plane. 

The principal objection to the stub switch is 
that the pounding of the ends of the rails at the 
head block by the passing wheels causes the rails 
to bind at the head block when the expansion 
becomes great, and thus brings about the derail- 
ment of trains. Their use should be confined to 
side tracks, but they are not to be recommended 
for use even there. 

Frogs can be placed in three general classes: 
rigid, spring rail and swing rail. The manufact- 
urers of frogs and switches make about four 
styles of rigid frogs. Fig. 120 illustrates a filled 




Fig. 120. 

RIGID FILLED FROG. 

frog. These frogs are made in two styles; in one 
of them the metal between the rails is in two 
pieces, and the other two pieces where they come 
together at the point of the frog are welded to- 
gether, thus making a stiffer frog and giving 
more support to the point. Fig. 121 represents 
a chuck filled frog which is lighter than the filled 



254 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 




SECTION CD 



S€CTI0NAB 

Fig. 121. 

RIGID CHUCK FILLED FROG. 



frog and suitable for yards or a road with light 
traffic. Fig. 122 rej)resents a clamped frog, the 




ver«0« imowti simr ciuip 



snuoM immsH imio etim 



Fig. 122, 

RIGID STEEL CLAMP FROG. 

clamps being made of steel. This is sometimes 
called a yoked frog. Fig. 123 represents a frog 
riveted to a plate I to f inches thick, the rivets 
being countersunk on the under side of the plate 
to give a flat bearing on the ties. In addition to 
the styles of rigid frogs mentioned, some roads 
have styles of their own, differing somewhat in 
detail, and the various makers also differ in the 
details of manufacture and style. Eigid frogs 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 



255 




SECTION A-B. 



Fig. 123. 



SElCTlDN C-D. 



RIGID PLATE RIVETED FROG. 



should not be used in main track of roads doing 
a large business; they may, however, be used on 
branches and in yards to advantage to reduce the 
expense of construction. 

Spring rail frogs have been called into use to 
prevent the pounding at the frog and secure a 
smooth riding main track; the spring rail frog is 
considered to have overcome the weak point in 
the track caused by a frog of the rigid type. Fig. 




SECTION AB 



» SECTIOUGB 



Fig. 124. 

SPRING RAIL FROG WITH ANCHOR BLOCK. 

124 represents one style of a spring rail frog, the 
block at A B is so combined with the track rails 



256 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 



and rails in the frog that it forms a frame to 
prevent the loose spring rail from creeping; the 
spring rail is channeled to prevent worn w^heels 
from striking it. Fig 125 represe^its the ''Eureka" 




Fig. 125. 



"EUREKA" SPRING RAIL FROG. 



Spring Rail Frog. All four ends are spliced sol- 
idly together as in a rigid frog. The hinge rail 
is attached to the main rail by a bolt hinge (see 
section I J); this allows the rail to move freely 
and prevents its creeping; it iy attached to the 
movable part of the running rail by strong, bolts 
passing through both rails and a wrought iron 
filling (see section E F). This makes this mov- 
able part strong throughout. Manufacturers 
have a number of other styles of spring rail 
frogs, and some roads have patterns of their own. 
Spring rail frogs and movable points are being 
used in place of frogs to secure a smooth riding 
track. Fig. 126 represents a movable point cross- 
ing, which is used in place of a frog by connect- 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION', 



257 




Fig. 126. 

MOVABLE POINT CROSSING. 

ing the levers at the movable point with the 
switch stand. The Coughlin switch rail frog is 
designed to leave the main line track unbroken 
at the frog, there being no guard rail or frog 
required for the main line. The principle of this 
spring rail frog is in use on the Lehigh Valley 
Railway and Western Maryland Railway. It 
can be used with the split switch or Wharton 
points. The spring rail frog used with the 
McPherson improved safety switch accomplishes 
the same object that the Coughlin switch rail 
frog does, except that a guard rail is required 
on the main line track. 

On account of the varying angles at which 
roads cross each other, crossing frogs have to be 
especially made in each instance. They are made 
of steel rails cut to length and shape, and fitted 



258 



BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 




Fig. 129.. 

CROSSING FROGS. ANGLES 60° TO 90'. 

and strongly bolted together. Fig. 129 represents 
one type of crossing frog; the rails butt against 
each other and are solid filled throughout, and 




Fig. 130. 

CROSSING FROGS. ANGLES 45° TO 60^ 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 



259 



securely clamped with angle bars having six bolts 
through them; the corners are supported by 
heavy bottom plates. In Fig. 130 the crossing 
differs from the preceding one, in that the rails 
at the obtuse angles are solid instead of being 
butts. 




Fig. 131. 

CROSSING FROGS WITH EXTRA HEAVY ANGLE IRONS. 

Fig. 131 represents a crossing where the angle 
irons are very heavy and have eight bolts; bot- 
tom plates extend the length of the crossing or 
can be put under the corners only as desired. 
Fig. 132 is the same crossing shown in Fig. 129, 
only modified for a street railroad. By making 
the flangeway on the street railroad as narrow as 
possible, the life of the crossing is increased. 
Fig. 133 represents another style of crossing for 
a steam and street railroad, this is known as a 
jump crossing, the rail of the steam railroad not 



260 BUILDING AND RE PAIRING RAILWAYS, 




Fig. 132. 

CROSSING FROGS FOR STEAiM AND STREET RAILROADS. 

being grooved for the flanges of the wheels of the 
street cars. 




99UNNINC ffifi sr/fcerpr p * g 






-3 



Running bail unois turbcd 



Fig. 133. 

JUMP CROSSING FROGS FOR STEAM AND STREET RAILROADS. 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 



261 



Switch stands are so arranged that they throw 
the switch and display a signal at one opera- 
tion; the signal is arranged to indicate a clear 
track on the main line or show the train crew 
that the switch is open to enter the siding. With 
all split and safety switches where the train can 
trail through and open the switch, an automatic 
or safety switch stand should be used to prevent 
either the points of the switch or the switch rod 
being damaged. Figs. 134 and 135 illustrate a 




Fig. 134. 



*RAMAPO" SAFETY SWITCH STAND, AS IT APPEARS WHEN HAD?^ 
THROWN BY HAND. 



2G2 BUILDING AND BE PAIRING RAILWAYS. 




s>AV\VC^^&^^.'^X 



Fig. 135. 



••RAMAPO" SAFETY SWITCH STAND AS IT APPEARS WHEN 
HALF THROWN BY WHEELS PASSING THROUGH THE SWITCH. 

safety switch made by the Ramapo Iron Works. 
This firm have recently added an adjustable crank 
to their safety switch stand; it assures the switch 
stand of being able always to fit the throw of the 



BTANDABDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 263 

switch, and to take up any lost motion that may 
accumulate from wear and avoid the necessity oi 
adjustable head rods, or of shimming out the rod 
to keep the gauge. There is an endless variety 
of switch stands, and the types only will be given 
here. Fig. 136 represents a switch stand for a 




Fig. 136. 

THREE-THROW SWITCH STAND. 



three-throw switch which can be used on the 
main line or in a yard where there is room for a 
high switch stand. In a large yard it is better to 
use low switch stands, as high ones are liable to 



264 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 




Fig. 137. 

AUTOMATIC PARALLEL GROUND-THROW SWITCH STAND. 





Fig. 138. 



Fig. 139. 



LOW PONY SWITCH STAND. LOW PONY SWITCH STAND 

WITH SAFETY BOTTOM CAP. 



STANDAMDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 



265 



prevent the signals on other switch stands from 
being seen. Figs. 137 to 140 illustrate such stands. 




p^^^^^sSt^ 



^A^ 'n:i.ii|i TJinigl^ 



Fia. 140. 

GROUND-THROW SWITCH STAND WITH WEIGHTED LEVER. 

Some of the various designs for signals or targets 
on switch stands are given in Fig. 141, and 
Fig. 142 illustrates a method of elevating the 
signal or target at a dangerous point. 




Fig. 141. 



DESIGNS FOR TARGETS OH SIGNALS TO BE USED ON SWITCiH 

STANDS. 





Fig. 142. 

TARGET TRIPOD FOR SWITCH STANDS. 
(266) 



STANDABDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 



267 




Fig. 143. 



*»HALEY'* SEMI-STEEL BUMPING POST. 
16 VoM3 



268 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 
BUMPING POSTS. 

There are several designs of bumping posts, 
the latest are of metal. Fig. 143 illustrates the 
Haley post which is made of semi-steel, and the 
spring is made of coil spring steel. The impact 
is received on a plunger and the blow taken up 
by two double coil springs, thus reducing the 
shock on rolling stock to a minimum. The 
anchorage under the rails shown in the cut can 
in some cases be omitted. The Haskell bumping 
post is made of steel rails and cast steel. The 
main or base rails form support for diverging 
braces, and it can be securely anchored. The 
Ellis bumping post. Fig. 145, is a wooden one, 




Fig. 145. 

"ELLIS'' BUMPING POST. 

which has been in use for about ten years on a 
number of roads. 

BRIDGES. 

The selection of bridges must be largely left 
to specialists and each stream crossed will have 
to be considered separately; one stream must be 
crossed with the grade line high above flood 
water; here a deck bridge can be used with ad- 
vantage, thus reducing the cost of piers. (See 
Figs. 149, 151 and 155.) At another crossing 



STANDAEDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 



269 




Fig. 146. 

THROUGH PLATE GIRDER BRIDGE. 




Fig. 147. 

PERSPECTIVE VIEW OP THROUGH PL.ATE GIRDER BRIDGE. 




Fig. 148. 



THROUGH PRATT TRUSS. 

A B is the lower chord, to which the bridge floor is attached. 

C D is the upper chord. 

A C and B D are the end posts. 

C E F G and all such verticals are called intermediate posts or verticals 
and are known as vertical members. 

C F E G and all such diagonals are called tie-braces or tension braces 
when the strain is a tension or pull and a tiestrut or strut-tie when the strain 
is a compressive one or a push— in either case they are known as oblique 
members. 



270 BUILDING AND REPAIRINO RAILWAYS. 

the grade line is so low that a through bridge can 
only be used. (See Figs. 148 and 150.) Again 
the nature of the stream may prevent false work 
from being used in the erection of all or part of 
a bridge and resort will have to be made to a 
cantilever style. (See Fig. 165») The stream 
may be navigable and the channels change at 
different stages of the river, necessitating a high 
bridge or two or more draw spans. (See Fig. 
160.) The width of the stream and the amount 
of shipping using the stream may be such that a 
biscular bridge must be resorted to. (See Fig. 
163.) 

Some of the points which must be considered 
in designing a bridge are: The relation between 
the length and the height of the truss, so that 
the metal will be economically used in the chords 
and braces. The width of the pannel must be 
so proportioned, that unnecessary expense will 
not be incurred for connections for the floor 
system and lateral bracing; no rule can, how- 
ever, be laid down for this; it is necessary for 
the designer to study each peculiar case. The 
lateral diagonal and portal bracing require care- 
ful attention, also the floor system. The decision 
as to whether the bridge is to be pin connected 
or riveted connections depends on conditions; 
more rapid erection can be accomplished with 
pin connections; at busy terminal points or near 
yards where a number of trains pass over bridges 
and there is danger of derailment, a lattice riv- 
eted bridge can be used to advantage; with this 
style one of the members may be disabled with- 



STANDABDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 



271 




Fig. 149. 

DECK PRATT TRUSS. 

A B is the lower chord. 

C D is the upper chord to which the bridge floor is attached. 

A C and B D are the end posts. 

E F, G H, etc., are vertical members. 

C P, E H, F G, etc , are oblique members. 

In the Pratt Truss the aim is to place the oblique members at an angle 
of 45° that being the most economical an^le; but sometimes the height of the 
truss E F is greater than the length of the panel P H and this feature has to 
be waived to secure economy in other directions. 




Fig. 150. 

THROUGH WARREN TRUSS. 

A B is the lower chord, to which the bridge floor is attached 

C D is the upper chord. 

A C and B D are the end posts. 

C E, E P, F G, etc., are oblique members. 

The Warren truss has no vertical members. The principle of this truss 
is a combination of equilateral triangles which geometrical figure is the 
stiffest form of framing; however, there are cases when the length of the 
panels A E, E G, etc., and the height of truss or vertical distance between 
the top and bottom chords are such that another form of triangle has to be 
adopted; in such cases the designer tries to make the angle E A C and A E C 
as near 45° as possible. 




Fig. 151. 



DECK WARREN TRUSS. 

A B is the lower chord. 

C D is the upper chord to which the bridge floor is attached 

A C and B D are the end posts. 

A E, E F, F G, G H, etc., are the oblique members. 



out stopping traffic over the bridges. (See Figs. 
154 and 155.) The forms of truss used in modern 
practice are as follows: Plate girder is used for 
short spans; under special conditions it can be 
used for spans 75 to 100 feet long, however, it is 
used mostly for spans of 50 feet or less. Figs. 
146 and 147 illustrate a plate girder bridge. For 
longer span than can be economically built with 
a plate girder, a Pratt or a Warren truss of simple 
type would be used (See Figs. 148 to 151.) 
These trusses may be used up to 150 feet span, 
as the span increases modifications of these 
trusses are made to afford points for supporting 
the floor system as shown by Figs. 152 to 157. 
When the span becomes what is styled a long 
span, reaching say over 300 or 400 feet, further 
modifications are found to give economical con- 
struction; these modifications are shown by Figs. 
158 to 160. The 525 foot span erected at Hen- 
derson, Kentucky, in 1885 was a truss similar to 
that illustrated by Fig. 158. 

The following bridges were built with a truss 
similar to that represented by Figs. 158 and 159. 



Havre de Grace, 


Maryland, 


in 1886, span 515 feet. 


Ceredo, 


W. Virginia, 
Kentucky, 


'' 1893, '' 521 '^ 


Covington, 


'* 1888, ^' 550 ** 



The truss used for the bridge at Memphis, Tenn., 
erected in 1892, was similar to that shown by 
Fig. 160. The channel span was a cantilever 
having a span of 791 feet and the two spans west 
of the channel were each 621 feet. 

The cantilever, arch and bowstring bridges are 
merely modifications of the trusses described* 



STANDAEDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 



273 




Fig. 152. 

WHIPPLE TRUSS OR DOUBIiE INTERSECTION PRATT. 

The height required for the clearance of a train is about 18 ft. above the 
rail, and in the preceding trusses (Figs. 148 to 151) the panels are made to ap- 
proach as near as possible to this distance. As the length of the span Is in- 
creased, the height of the truss must be increased, and to place the oblique 
members at or near an angle of 45° in a Pratt truss or 60° in a Warren truss, 
the length of the panel must be increased. Modifications must now be made 
of the simple trusses to afford intermediate points to support the floor system. 
The Whipple truss is a modification of the Pratt truss made for this purpose; 
A B C D represents a panel of a Prait Truss; an extra vertical E P and extra 
obliques D E and E G are added to afford support to the point E to support 
the floor system. 




MODIFIED FORM OP WARREN TRUSS. 
As the length of the Warren truss is increased and the height of the truss 
also Increased, making the points A and B of the triangle ABC too far 
apart to support the floor system, a vertical C D is added to support the 
floor at the point D. 




Fia. 154. 



SINGLE LATTICE GIRDER— MODIFIED FORM OP WARREN TRUSS. 

This is another method of accon^plishing what is illustrated by Pig. 153, 
and in addition stiffens the upper chord; this is two Warren trusses A B C D 
P G H and A' B' C D' F' G' H' placed together; the latter one affords points 
B' D' G' for supporting the floor system and points C and F' for supporting 
or stiffening the upper chord. 



274 BUILDING AND BEPAIBING BAILWATS. 

the cantilever is merely two spans placed 
with say their centers on piers, the shore ends 
anchored and the space between the two spans 
over the stream or canyon bridged by a truss 
bridge; the cantilever may be a deck or through 
bridge; Fig. 165 illustrates a cantilever bridge. 
The arch bridge is merely a truss with the lower 
chord built in the form of an arch. The bow- 
string bridge generally has the top chord in the 
form of an arch, though sometimes the lower 
chord is in the form of an inverted arch; Fig. 159 
illustrates a bowstring bridge. The draw bridge 
illustrated by Fig. 161 represents the usual style 
with a center pier and a channel on each side of 
the center pier. Where a pier is not allowed to 
be built in the channel, bob-tailed draw bridges 
having the short span weighted are sometimes 
used, see Fig. 162. There has recently been in- 
troduced another style of draw bridge especially 
suitable to be used in a narrow channel, known 
as the Scherzer rolling lift bridge; the advantages 
over the old styles are as follows: (a) No center 
piers obstructing the channel. (&) No dock 
space wasted, (c) When opened it completely 
closes the roadway and prevents a train from 
running into the draw. It can be designed as an 
arch or cantilever. Fig. 163 illustrates this. 

There are two general methods of determining 
the strains or loads the various members of a 
bridge are subjected to; one is by platting the 
loads or strains and is called ''Graphical" statics 
or ''Graphical Method.'' The other method is a 



8TA2^BARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 



275 



tr- 




^ 


, c- 


e" 


0" 


t> 






r 




\ 




/\ 




/\ 


/\ 


/\ 


^\ 


/v 






.:/ 




\^/ 




\^ 


\/ 


N/ 


\^ 








*"\ 




/\ 




/K 


/^\ 


/\ 


/\ 








.."^^ 




\/ 




\x 


X/ 


\/ 


\/ 


\/\ 




S-.. 




e' 


fl* 


C" 


c 


o" 


Q- 




^■ 





Fig. 155. 

DOUBLE LATTICE GIRDER— MODIFIED FORM OF WARREN TRUSS 

Where tlie length of the truss becomes too great to use the form shown 
by Fig. 154, this form can be used to support the intermediate points 
B" B' C" on the lower chord and C" C D'" on the upper chord, ABODE 
F G being the simple Warren truss with three others — A' B' C D', etc. 
A" B" C" D", etc, A'" B"' C" D'", etc., added. 




Fig. 156. 

DECK BALTIMORE TRUSS— MODIFIED FORM OF PRATT TRUSS. 

This Is Fig. 148 inverted to make a longer span for a deck bridge than 
Fig. 149 is suited for; the floor system is supported by the addition of 
oblique members A B and A' B' and vertical members A C D E, etc. 




Fig. 157. 



THROUGH BALTIMORE TRUSS— MODIFiSD FORM OF PRATT 

TRUSS. 

This is another method of accomplishing what is done by the Whipple 
truss. (Fig. 152.) The panels as A B CD have but one oblique D B, to this is 
added the oblique C E and the vertical E F to support the floor system at F 



L>76 BUILDING AND RE PAIRING RAILWAYS. 

mathematical one, based on the laws of me- 
chanics.* 

The various members of a bridge must be so 
designed and connected that the strains will be 
in the direction of their axis; all strains tending 
to buckle or shear the members must be avoided 
in making the design, and in the erection care 
must be taken that all members are placed as 
designed, no shortening or lengthening to be 
allowed, as this would tend to throw a greater 
strain on some members than they were designed 
to bear. The manufacture of steel has reached 
such a high standard that the bridge designer 
knows definitely what. duty it will perform, and 
bridge designing has become as near an exact 
science as can be expected of anything produced 
by human agency. The expansion and contrac- 
tion of the bridge is allowed for by an arrange- 
ment of rollers on which one end of the bridge 
rests. t The piers to support the bridges can be 
masonry or iron cylinders filled with concrete, 
the selection of the style to adopt depending on 
local conditions. 

Wooden truss bridges are now seldom used on 
new lines. Pile bridges and frame trestles are 
now used to cheapen the cost where there is 
much filling required; they are, however, used 
as temporary structures especially on lines which 
do much business; they are replaced as the re- 



*Tlu? details of these two methods are treated a ery fully by A. 
J. DuBois and Merriman and other authors, see Appendix K. 

fThe expansion of rails on draw bridges is discussed under 
the .subjict of track. 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 



277 




Fig. 158. 

LONG SPAN BALTIMORE TRUSS — MODIFICATION OF WARREN 

TRUSS. , 

This is a method in a long span of supporting the floor at three inter- 
mediate points in a panel as is done by the double lattice girder Fig. 155, 
ABCDEFGHIis the simple Warren truss, oblique members J K L M, etc., 
and vertical members C M, N L, O D, F J, E K, etc., are added to support 
the floor system at N O P, etc, and to stiffen the upper chord at M K, etc. 




Fig. 159. 



LONG SPAN BALTIMORE TRUSS— ALSO KNOWN AS THE ARCHED 
TRUSS, THE BOWSTRING TRUSS AND THE CAMELBACK TRUSS. 

As shown by panel D D' and E E' this is modifled form of a Pratt Truss; 
AB, B C, C D, D E. E F, etc., D' E', E' F'. etc., are the oblique members of 
the Pratt trussiB B', C C, D D', E E', F F', are the vertical members of the 
Pratt truss. To support the floor system at G H I, etc., the oblique members 
LB. MC',N C, and the vertical members LG, MH,NI, O J, P K, are 
added. The pressure exerted by the top chord is carried to the abutment 
at A by the members already alluded to, and the segment of a circle or 
arch'made by the members A B, B C, and C D, of the top chord which 
act as an arch. This form of truss ;s suitable for long spans and is econom- 
ical in the use of metal. 



1178 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

sources of the company permit by earth em- 
bankments, or in the case of heavy fills, by steel 
viaducts and arched culverts with earth embank- 
ments. Fig. 166 illustrates a pile trestle, while 
Fig. 167 illustrates a framed one; in each of the 
illustrations short stringers reaching from the 
center of one bent to the center of the adjoining 
bent are used; where long stringers reaching 
from the center of one bent to the center of the 
second bent are used and are laid with broken 
joints, a stiff er structure is secured, and the labor 
in erecting is less than with short stringers; the 
short stringers have the advantage of costing 
less and require less labor to replace them when 
it becomes necessary to make renewals. The 
stringers are fastened to the caps in Fig. 166 by 
both passing through a corbel which is drift 
bolted to the cap. Another method is shown in 
Fig. 167; here the stringers rest directly on the 
cap and blocks are placed between them, the 
stringers are bolted to the blocks and the blocks 
are drift bolted to the cap. 

The longitudinal bracing shown in Fig. 167 is 
dimension timber instead of planking, similar to 
that used for sway braces as shown in the end 
elevation; this is a departure made by the Chi- 
cago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad on one of its 
new lines. This method makes a stiff bracing 
and is economical in the use of timber. A stone 
arched culvert, well designed and the masonry 
properly laid, is a '* permanent structure'^ in the 
fullest sense of the term, and this fact is more 
generally appreciated by the Eastern trunk lines 



STANDilRDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 



279 




Fig. 160. 

ANOTHER MODIFICATION OF THE WARREN TRUSS FOR 
LONG SPANS. 

This is type of the truss used for the bridge across the Mississippi River at 
Memphis, Tenn. The lower chord is 75 feet above high water. 
The span is 621 feet. 
This is a modification of the lattice girder, Fig. 154: to adapt it to long span 
bridges, the vertical members, E F, E' F', etc. are added to support the floor 
system at F F', etc., and to stiffen the upper chord at E E'. etc; the horizon- 
tal brace H G is added to stiffen the end post A A'. With this truss and the 
arched truss, Fig. 159, the floor system has to be made stronger than for the 
others, illustrated, as the distances apart of the points of support are greater. 




Fig. 161. 



DUL.UTH-SUPERIOR BRIDGE. 

This draw bridge is made of two trusses connected with a tower on the 
draw or center pier by tie or tension braces. 

Four track bridge (two sten.m railroad and two electric tracks) consist- 
ing of center draw span, 485 feet, and two side spans, 300 feet each. Total 
weight. 3, 230 tons. 

Draw span operated by electrical power. 

Note— The essential point is to show the draw span. 



2S0 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

than by the Western ones. . The arched culvert 
can be built with one or more spans, and all 
streams except the larger on^s can be crossed 
^ith them. 

Fig. 168 illustrates an arched culvert. The 
proper thickness to give the arch will depend on 
the span S, the rise R, and the amount of fill A. 
The proper thickness B of the side walls depends 
en the pressure on the arch. Taking a given 
depth of fill as the length of the arch is decreasea 
the amount of masonry in the wing walls is in- 
creased. It is the engineer's duty to determine 
the length which is the most economical, anc* 
this cannot be tabulated except for cases where 
the ground is level transversely with the line of 
the road. 

Cast iron pipe laid through an embankment 
can be used to convey a fair sized stream, or the 
drainage of considerable area of country. These 
pipes are used from one foot to three feet in 
diameter, and several lines of pipe can be laid 
together when necessary to secure the proper 
capacity. They are generally made in twelve- 
foot lengths, but some roads have the larger 
sizes made in six-foot lengths. Fig. 169 illus- 
trates a cast-iron pipe culvert and Fig. 170 illus- 
trates one with wing walls at the inlet and outlet. 

Drainage is secured through low embankments 
by open culverts. In such cases the track can 
be supported by wooden stringers or steel I 
beams, Fig. 171 illustrates an open culvert. 



STANDAMDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 



281 




Fig. 162. 



BOB-TAILED DRAW BRIDGE— MODIFIED FORM OF WARREN TRUSS, 
SHORT SPAN COUNTER-WEIGHTED. 

This draw bridge also consists of two trusses similar to Fig. 153, but in 
this case the end posts are connected to the tower and form a part of the 
tower. 




^89e?are5Brr?^ 



IjSJHiiiegy, 






Fig. 163. 

SCHERZER ROLLING LIFT BRIDGE. 




Fig. 165. 

CANTILEVER BRIDGE. 



282 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 




\ M' 



"^r- ':..'> 



'-ii„^.»i;^ 




Y/^^\y'''^>^^'^''yyyy ^y^^^^^>^y>yy^yy'^y>^^J^,>^^^J>?y>^J>^^^^^^^ 



>iu- 



Fig. 166. 

PILE TRESTLE BRIDGE. 




Fig. 167. 

FRAMED TRESTLE 



tiTANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 



283 



m 






M 


^B 





HfiLf Pi.A/>t SlcriON Thhoucm C2? ^eCTiorv Throuom £ f 



Fig. 168. 

STONE ARCHED CULVERT. 







^y>/?y//ym/}> * 



Fig. 169. 

CAST IRO I PIPE CULVERT WITHOUT WiNG WALLS. 
1/ Vol. 13 



J84 BUILD I NO AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 



-t — 1 r_ 





^^'''''^^^■ !^' '^ ''^ -'^'''!^^''^^^^ ^ ' ^^^ y_^^^^^^^l^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^^^'^^^::^\^\^\\^^^ s^\^ vvp^^ ^ 








^^/y>?^/^^/W//'y> 



Fig. 170. 

CAST IRON PIPE CULVERT WITH WING WALLS. 




PLAfsf 

Fig. 171. 

OPEN CULVERT. 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 2S5 

WATER SUPPLIES. 

The importance of the water supply has been 
discussed in a previous chapter, the selection of 
pumps, storage tanks and accessories will here be 
considered. Windmills, probably, are used more 
as a source of power to pump water for railroads 
than all other appliances in the United States; 
the other sources of power are steam and gas. 
Wheels as large as 30 feet in diameter are used 
on windmills; their stroke is from 2 to 24 inches 
and the plungers of the pumps are from 2 to 10 
inches in diameter. 

Where larger supplies of water are required 
than a windmill can be relied upon to give, a 
steam and gas or gasoline pump can be used. 
The gas or gasoline pump has only been recently 
introduced for this purpose. A steam pump for 
deep non-flowing artesian wells is illustrated by 
Fig. 172. When pumping from a well, pond or 
stream by a steam pump, the pumping plant re- 
quired is shown by Fig. 173. Fig. 174 represents 
one of the makes of gasoline engines and pumps 
designed for railroad water supply. A design 
•for a pump house and machinery is shown in 
Fig. 175; this shows a gasoline engine belted to 
a pump. 

To supply locomotives with water large 
amounts are required at intervals more or less 
frequent depending on the number of trains. To 
obtain an economical plant, provision must be 
made for storing the water as it is pumped and 
running the pumping plant steadily; this per- 



2Sr, BUILDING AND ME PAIRING RAILWAYS, 




Fig. 172. 

PUMP FOR A DEEP WELL. 



STANDABDS OF COMSTBUCTION, 



mits of a small pumping plant being used, and 
on a branch or where but few trains are run one 
man can attend to pumping water for several 
water stations. The water tanks generally used 
are 16 feet high and 24 feet in diameter and con- 
tain 50,000 gallons. They should be placed high 
enough above the rail to give the water sufficient 
force to fill the tender rapidly and not unneces- 
sarily delay trains; some roads are placing the 
bottom of the tank twenty feet above the rail. 
The tanks are made of wood and are supported 
on wooden or iron posts. Fig. 176 illustrates 




Fig. 173. 



COMMON FORM OF SETTING UP A PUMPING PLANT FOR A 
WATER STATION. 



JS8 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 




Fig. 174. 



COMBINED GASOLINE ENGINE AND PUMP. 

one supported by wooden posts. Some, however, 
are supported by wrought iron columns and the 
advisability of using steel in place of wood for 
constructing railroad water tanks is being dis- 
cussed. 

A submerged water station consists of a cylin- 
der submerged in a well, the cylinder contains a 
movable piston; the top of the cylinder is con- 
nected with a pipe which leads up to a post 
where it can be coupled to the boiler of a loco- 
motive; when steam is turned on the piston is 
depressed and water is forced out of the cylinder 
through a jiipe leading to a stand pipe. Mr. E. 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 



289 



H. McHenry, Chief Engineer of the ISIorthern 
Pacific Railway, is the inventor and it is in use 
on the Northern Pacific and Duluth, Missabe & 
N^orthern Railways. 

Where the water supply is procured from an 
elevated point and is piped to the track or from 
a city water- works, a stand pipe or v^ater column 
is used; where the road is a double track one 
water column can be placed between the tracks; 



» 






i±J 












■Iff 


































" - .0 


: .7) -^ ; ; 






' -.y.-:... y... 




J ts>< 4'; "Wrfg-t 



f/a/if S/eyaf/ot 



JL-.t 





6\/s Ccfrt/s. /"u/TJfi 



(^OI7 



Fig. 175. 




<m&ff»f<oo 



DESIGN FOR R. R. PUMP HOUSE AND MACHINERY, USING A 
GASOLINE ENGINE. 



290 BUILDING AND EBPAlRINO RAILWATB. 




Fm. 176. 

WATER TANK, SUPPORTED BY WOODEN POSTS OR BENTS. 

however, less delay to the trains is secured by 
using two, as stated in the chapter on construc- 
tion. 

An automatic water column or stand pipe is 
illustrated by Fig. 179. There are several makes 
on the market. To secure satisfactory service 
the supply pipe should be large, some roads using 
a 12 inch supply pipe for a 10 inch water columr 
There must be a sufficient head of water to giv 
the necessary force to discharge the water rapidl} 
and not detain trains. The column must have 
a quick opening valye, be readily adapted to high 
or low pressure, be frost proof, should turn auto- 
matically to its position parallel with the track, 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 



291 




Fig. 179. 

<VUTOMATIC STAND PIPE OR WATER OOLUMl^. 



20l^ building and be pairing railways. 

the valve should be balanced, it should rotate 
easily and should drain automatically after use.* 
To enable fast trains to take water without 
making a stop ''Track Tanks" are resorted to; 
they consist of a shallow tank 6 to 7 inches deep 
in the clear and 1200 to 1400 feet long. The 
approach at each end is sloped so that loose rods 
on passing trains will not catch and damage the 
tank. The train can take water when moving 
at a speed of 45 miles per hour; this is done by 
lowering a scoop attached to the tender, which, 
with the force and velocity at which the train is 
moving, causes the water to flow into the tender, 
the tank is sloped up at the ends to prevent 
the scoop damaging it. Track tanks are so 
placed that water can be taken about every 30 
miles run by the train. The difficulty met with 




.2.0' >; 




36 



•30 1* 



Fig. 180. 



TRACK TANK. 

A— Cross section of roadbed. B— Cross section of tank. C— Partial longltu 

dinaJ section of tank. 



*Table No. 8, Appendix J, gives the capacity of single acting 
md duplev pumps and the fittings required. 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 293 

is to prevent their freezing and two methods 
have been adopted to overcome this: one is to 
inject live steam at points along the line of the 
tank about 40 feet distant from each other. The 
other method is to tap the tank at the center and 
connect it with a suction pipe of a pump and 
pump the water out of the center of the tank, 
pass it through a heater and return it at each 
end of the tank; the latter method gives the 
best results. Track tanks are in use on a number 
of roads. (See Fig. 1 80 which gives details. ) 

COALING. 

The method adopted for storing and handling 
coal is important; a badly arranged coal station 
may require an unnecessary amount of labor in 
handling the coal which in the course of a few 
years would equal the cost of the plant. There 
are three general methods in use. The one used 
the most consists of a shed about 20 feet wide 
having the main line on one side and a side track 
for coal cars on the other. The side next to the 
siding is boarded up as high as the sides of the 
gondolas or coal cars. The length of the shed 
depends on the amount of coal required to be 
stored. At the center of the shed a platform is 
erected having a hand crane on it and space for 
the storage of coal buckets, which are made of 
iron and contain one-half ton of coal each. A 
narrow gauge track is laid along one side of the 
shed^ if the shed is much wider than 20 feet the 
track should be laid in the center. The coal 
buckets are placed on cars to move them to and 



294 BUILDING AJSfD REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

from the crane to the coal pile; as fast as they 
are loaded they are placed on the platform, which 
is the same height above the rail as the top of 
the tender. Fig 181 shows a plan of such a coal- 



CENTEH OF SlOE TRACK 




/''■^rS-'^L-:''' 



o 



^ 



8' - ->; ; 



Fig. 181. 

PLAN OF A COALING STATION WHERE BUCKETS ARE USED. 

ing station, which is arranged to save handling 
part of the coal by shoveling it direct from the 
car into the buckets which are placed on a car 
on the track D, the buckets being hoisted through 
the opening E on to the platform C. The track 
A is used for the car when the buckets are loaded 
from the coal stored in the shed, Another style 
used more extensively on lines having a large 
traffic is an elevated coal shed with pockets con- 
taining enough coal to coal up a tender; these 
stations can be arranged to unload the cars by 
dumping from the side or bottom. However 
they are generally arranged for the cars to be 
unloaded by hand as a large amount of the coal 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 



295 



is handled by cars having no arrangement for 
dumping. These stations can be placed between 
the two main line tracks of a double track road; 
the coal cars are pushed up an incline track on a 
grade of 5 or 6 per cent, to the coal shed which 
is on trestles or the side of a cut. Fig. 182 re- 




BA3£' Of" T}fli> 



Fia. 182. 

TRANSVERSE SECTION OF A CLINTON COALING STATION. 

presents a section of such a coaling station. 
Where the traffic becomes so heavy that four or 
more tracks are required, the coal for locomotives 
is placed in the tender of the locomotive from a 
bridge spanning the tracks. The storage shed is 
elevated on a trestle or the side of a cut, a track 
laid in the coal shed passes over a turn-table 
where a track from the shed leads to the bridge 
over the main line tracks. Scales are placed at 



296 BUILDING AND REP AIMING RAILWAYS, 

a point where all coal taken from the shed can 
be weighed. The coal is loaded into cars of a 
style which can be easily dumped; under the 
rails on the bridge there is a hopper terminating 
in a spout to which a movable section is attached. 
The operation of loading a tender is as follows: 
The cars are kept loaded and are pushed from 
the coal shed out on the track leading to the 
bridge, when a train pulls up with the tender 
under a hopper the movable spout is let down, 
the coal cars are run to the hopper and the coal 
dumped and the empty car pushed forward, leav- 
ing room for a second car to discharge its load 
into the hopper. In this way the necessary number 
of cars to load the tender are rapidly unloaded, 
the movable spout is raised and the train proceeds. 
Where the men are trained for the work the oper- 
ation is very rapid. The empty cars are run back 
into the coal shed, being switched around those 
which were not unloaded. 

The skill of the engineer is displayed in adapt- 
ing the various plans to the conditions of the 
business and the topography of the country — - 
aiming always to reduce the cost of labor and de- 
tention of trains to a minimum. 

TURNTABLES. 

With the increased weight and length of en- 
gines, the styles of turntables in use a few years 
ago are not able to do the work required of them 
at present. Attention is now being given to im- 
proving the bearings at the center to secure a 
distribution of the weight of engine and turn- 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 



297 



table, so that the table can be quickly and easily 
turned. Turntables are now made from thirty 
to seventy feet in length, and of both wrought 
and cast iron. The two styles are illustrated by 
Figs. 183 and 184. Turntable centers are illus- 
trated by Figs. 184, 185 and 186. 




Fig. 183. 



CAST IRON TURNTABLE. 
(Made by William Sellers «& Co., PhiladelpMa, Pa.) 



298 BUILDING AND liEPAIHING RAILWAYS. 




STANDARD 60 rr. TURNTABLE NO. 2 

TMC KMO WUMC CO. . 



Fig. 184. 

WROUGHT IRON TURNTABLE. 
(Made by the King Iron Bridge Co.) 




Fig. 185. 

A TURNTABLE CENTER USED BY WILLIAM SELLERS & CO 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 



299 




Fig. 186. 

SPECIAL. SIXTEEN ROLLER CENTER FOR TURNTABLES. 
(Made by C. L. Strobel.) 

BUILDINGS. 

In regard to the character of the buildings to be 
erected, the uncertainty of the development of the 
country must be borne in mind. Another point to 

18 Vol. 13 



300 BUILDING AND BE PAIRING RAILWAYS, 

be considered is the effect produced by improve- 
ments made in the arrangement of the interiors, 
decoration, methods of lighting, heating and ven- 
tilation,improvements in plumbing and sewerage; 
in private dwellings the improvements along these 
lines have been such that a period of about ten 
years makes a residence, once modern and de- 
sirable, old-fashioned and undesirable unless re- 
modeled. It is altogether probable this improve- 
ment of design, etc., will continue at a more 
rapid rate in the future than in the past. While 
railroad structures are probably not affected so 
much by this improvement as dwellings, yet on 
account of competition it must be considered. 
For this reason it is not the greatest economy 
to erect buildings of a character to last for a long 
period. It is also difficult to design a building 
for the present, and provide for extensions to be 
built when business increases; the increased busi- 
ness often takes place along unexpected lines and 
is of a character which could not be anticipated. 
The growth of the country and the expansion of 
business, while increasing the receipts of a rail- 
road, also greatly increase the expenditure made 
to provide facilities to handle the business. These 
reasons tend to make careful railway managers 
use buildings which the public are protesting 
against and which they are not satisfied with. 
For the larger buildings such as terminal depots, 
general offices, depots both passenger and freight 
at large cities or manufacturing centers, hotels 
and even offices and shops at division head- 
quarters, it is impossible to lay down any general 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 



301 




C4 

o 



o 
o 

o 

o 
o 

M 

> 

I— I 

►:; 
w 

EH 



Eh 
O 

O 



302 BUILDIXG AND HEPAIItTNG RAILWAYS. 



plan to be adopted, as the conditions are so dif- 
ferent. 

Fig. 187 is a plan of a frame depot suitable for 
a new line in a sparsely settled country. Living 
rooms are provided for the agent and his family; 
a passing track but no house track is provided 
for. 




Fig. 188. 

• SMALT. FRAME DEPOT. 

Fig. 188 is a plan of a frame depot suitable to 
be used where business is light or moderate and 
where the agent's family can secure a house away 
from the depot to live in. 

Fig. 189 is a plan of a frame depot for a 
station doing a fair business. A house track is 
provided for, which can also be used as a team 
track for carload freight. 

All of these depots when built in a northern 
climate should be set on a stone foundation or 
some other provision made to keep the floors 
warm. The floor of the warehouse should be of 
two-inch plank and the waiting rooms, offices and 
living rooms double floored, the top one being of 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 



303 



K»A»-> *■ 




o 

Eh 

P 
H 
tS3 

m 



00 



Q 
O 
% 

g 

Q 



304 



BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 



hard maple. The doors in the warehouse should 
be sliding, six feet wide and seven feet high; the 
other outside doors should be three feet wide and 
seven feet high. The inside doors can be 
two feet six inches wide and seven feet high. 
No windows should be placed in the ware- 
house, they afford opportunity for petty thieves 
to ascertain whether fruits, etc., are on hand 
and tempt them to pilfer. A transom should 
be placed over the end door. The waiting 



^ 

I 

I 

I. 



o 
o 



G^A/ 



I 
-X- 

I 
I 

CO 

00 

I 

I 



U 



LfiDIEt 



Coal 



OIL 



I I- 



b. 1 

I 

I V 



I 



N 



_^^_ 



<- - - s' 






Fig. 190. 

OUTBUILDINGS FOK SMALL DEPOTS. 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 305 

room and office windows are often made of 
twelve lights, each eight by sixteen inches, which 
give a good light for clerks to work in; one feat- 
ure about windows in a room where clerks are 
employed is to have them well up above the floor, 
as the light is required on the books and papers 
the clerks are working on and not on the floor. 

Coal and oil should never be kept in a depot. 
Fig. 190 illustrates out buildmgs for small de- 
pots. In these provision is made for storage of 
coal and oil and for filling lamps. 

When the business becomes so large that the 
freight and passenger business cannot be accommo- 
dated in one station building, a passenger station 
should be erected. Fig. 191 illustrates a brick 
one which has been found convenient. One roof 
covers all the buildings and extends six and one- 
half feet beyond the outside walls all around, 
thus affording shelter and leaving the platform 
unobstructed by posts or columns. The building 
can be heated by steam or hot water from a boiler 
in the baggage room. Where the ticket sales are 
large the ticket sfeller should have but one ticket 
window to attend. Where there is a roof over 
the platform there should always be a window 
placed in the office above the platform roof to 
give light for the clerks to work during cloudy 
weather or when a train is standing in front of the 
depot; the importance of this can only be real- 
ized by those who have to work in such offices 
where there is no window above the platform 
roof. 

The present practice is tending toward placing 
station platforms on a level with the top of the 



306 



BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 




\o" 



--f o 



w 
o 

o 

M 



o 






STANDABBS OF CONSTRUCTION, 



307 



rail and making them of vitrified brick; however, 
very good results have been secured with small 
limestone screenings; they pack hard and wear 
well and can be cheaply repaired. 

Fig. 192 illustrates a stock pen used by a 



acAi,e Houat 




RE CEiV I NC> 



s 



ELS. ' 



Fig. 192. 

PLAN OP STOCK YARD. 

Note— Where stock pens are built on an extensive scale (as at points 
where large shipments are made), the alleyway should be 12 feet wide, so that 
teams can be driven through with loads of hay, and the feed be distributed 
in the receiving or feeding pens. 

country stock buyer ; provision is made for re- 
ceiving pens, feeding pens with sheds and load- 
ing pens ; the addition of the second runway B 
enables two cars to be loaded at one time. This 
plan can be varied to suit the volume of business; 
where range cattle are to be shipped it will be 
necessary to add a fence C. D. to enable the 
herders to get the cattle into the pens. 



'K)S 



BUILDING AND EEP AIMING RAILWAYS. 



IP 






V ^'-^. / P 




STANDABDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 



309 



Fig. 193 is a plan of a roundhouse and small 
repair shops. The roundhouse is heated by indi- 
rect radiation from a coil of steam pipes placed 
in the blower room; the air is driven by a blower 
through the coils of steam pipes and conveyed 
to the roundhouse in overhead sheet iron pipes 
and discharged in the pits under the locomotives. 
Provision is made by a wrought iron pipe placed 
overhead and steam hose couplings to take the 
live steam from a locomotive which has just 
come in and convey it to one that is about to go 
out. The hydraulic pit for removing drivers is 
really a part of the machine shop. In the blower 
room are placed air compressors for handling the 
sand and operating the ash lift. Fire hydrants 
H are placed in each stall. 









<0 



o 
o 



4 J /6' i <^--/2'-6" 



"csl 



Center of Side TRacK 



Fig. 194. 

PLAN OP BRICK STOREHOUSE FOR SUPPLIES. 



310 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 



A brick storehouse is illustrated by Fig. 194. 
The oil room is paved with stone flagging, and 
no wood work is in the room except the window 
frames; some roads provide for the storage of 
oils in tanks set in the ground, the oil being 
pumped out as required. 



C^/V7-£r/? OP" GlOe TRBCK 
_ 






V 



STOR€ ' ROOM rOR^ h 3/9/siO 

I ^ 



• I 
I I 



on 



Sfl/>^. 



&\ 



Z/A<' 






2/' ->' 



Fig. 195. 

PLAN OF STOREHOUSE FOR SAND. 

A sand house is illustrated by Fig. 195. The 
dried sand is placed in a hopper A, and carried 
by a current of air (which only takes up the fine 
sand) to an elevated tank; from this tank the 
sand box on the locomotive is filled by gravity in 
the same way that water is supplied to a tender. 

ASH PITS. 

To reduce the expense in loading ashes at 
roundhouses, air hoist ash pits have been intro- 
duced. Fig. 196 illustrates the method of using 
compressed air for this purpose. The bucket F 



STANDAEDS OF CONSTBUCTION. 



311 




li^m^wm' 



Fig. 196. 

ELEVATIOM OF A BENT OP AN AIR HOIST ASH PIT. 

is placed under the locomotive when the ashes 
are drawn; it is then pushed down the inclined 
track G to the position shown in Fig. 196, and is 
attached to the piston rod B which works in the^ 
cylinder A; the attendant then turns a valve at 
E, and the compressed air causes the piston and 



312 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

piston rod B to rise in the cylinder A, thus lifting 
the bucket F and the attached truck level with the 
top of the car; another valve at E is then opened 
and the compressed air is admitted into the cyl- 
inder C drawing in the piston rod D, and bring- 
ing the cylinder A and bucket F over the car. 
The bucket is then dumped and the ashes dis- 
charged into the car. The attendant then re- 
verses the air in cylinder C, and the cylinder A 
and bucket F are brought back to the original 
position; by reversing the air in cylinder A the 
bucket F is lowered on to track G and can then 
be run under the track supported by the cast 
iron yokes H where it is in position to be filled 
again. A number of these bents can be placed 
together, and the operation can be carried on 
continuously. By this method one man can do 
the work heretofore requiring a gang of men, 
their number depending on the number of loco- 
motives handled. Where the ashes are handled 
without an air hoist, the track is lowered, so that 
the journals of the car wheels are on a level with 
the bottom of the ash pit to afford easy shoveling. 

PAVEMENT OF TEAM TRACKS IN FREIGHT YARDS. 

The paving to be used at team tracks in freight 
yards is quite an item of expense. The cheapest 
pavement is broken stone, having the large size 
in the bottom and the small size on top, covering 
the latter with a layer of screenings or fine 
gravel; no rolling is required, the traffic can 
make the road. The greater part of the cost of 
street improvements in cities is caused by the 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 313 

impatience of the public to have a perfect sur- 
face to the macadam at once; the same condi- 
tions can be secured later by allowing the traffic 
to do the work performed by the steam roller. 
Brick pavement is cheaper than granite, and 
where the soil is thoroughly compacted and is 
sandy no concrete base is required, two courses 
of brick on sand will answer; under other con- 
ditions six inches of concrete and one course of 
brick should be used. Where good hard burnt 
bricks cannot be secured and a first-class pave- 
ment must be laid granite or trap blocks should 
be used. 

SIGNALS.*^ 

The method of signaling to adopt will depend 
on the amount of traffic and number of trains. 
A light business can be handled by signals dis- 
played at telegraph offices indicating clear track 
or a stop required for train orders; such signals 
are operated by hand by the operator from the 
oflBce. Fig. 198 represents a style of this kind. 

Where there are a number of fast trains some 
automatic system should be resorted to; in this 
case the power to operate the signals is obtained 
from electric batteries and the circuits are opened 
and closed by the passing trains. Fig. 199 illus- 
trates the signal used — a white disc indicates the 
track is clear to the next signal or block, a red 
one indicates the train has not yet reached the 
next signal or block. Fig. 200 shows the lever 

* The subject of signal! ag is fully treated in the volume, 
" Train Service." 



314 BUILDING AND HEP AIRING RAILWAYS. 





1 



Fig. 198. 



Fig. 199. 



TRAIN SIGNAL OPERATED BY 
STATION AGENT. 



AUTOMATIC ELECTRIC 
SIGNAL. 



operated by the engine to open and close the 
electric circuit. Another method used to ac- 
complish the same purpose is illustrated by Fig. 
201. By this method the operator displays a 
danger signal after the train has passed his 
tower and leaves it at danger until he is notified 
by the operator at the next tower that the train 
has passed, when he changes it for clear track. 
The first method costs more to install but is 
safer and less expensive to operate. Both meth- 
ods are called the Block System. At crossings^ 



STAJS^DABDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 



315 




Fig. 200. 



Fig. 201. 



LEVER OPERATED BY ENGINE 

TO OPEN AND CLOSE 

ELECTRIC CIRCUIT. 



BLOCK SIGNAL OPERATED 
BY TELEGRAPH OPERATOR. 



yards and terminal points interlocking plants 
are used, the principle applied here being an ar- 
rangement by which the switches are thrown by 
levers placed in a tower and are operated by 
hand; the mechanism is so arranged that 
switches, where any two or more opened at the 
same time might lead to a collision or derail a 
train, are locked so only one can be opened, 
and to open a second one of the set the first 
must be closed. The signals for clear track or 

19 Vol. 13 



31G BUILDING AND BEPAIRING RAILWAYS. 



danger are operated at the same time the switch 
is thrown. Fig. 141 illustrates some of the sig- 
nals used on switch stands to indicate in the day 
time clear track or danger; at night lanterns are 
placed on the switch stands displaying a red 
light for danger and a green light for clear track; 
it is not advisable to use a white light for clear 
track, as the white light in a lantern may be 
taken for the signal on a switch stand. The dif-* 
ficulty with a switch light is to get one which 





Fig. 202. 



Fig. 203. 



SWITCH LAMP UPPER 
DRAUGHT. 



SWITCH LAMP LOWER 
DRAUGHT. 



STANDABD8 OF CONSTRUCTION. 317 

will not blow out under all conditions, often a 
lantern which will not remain lighted on the 
signal at a telegraph office will give satisfaction 
on a switch stand. The manufacturers make 
them with a down draught and an up draught. 
Figs. 202 and 203 represent these styles. The 
character of lamps used on a semaphore with the 
block system is illustrated by Fig. 204; in this 




Fig. 204. 

SEMAPHORE SIGNAL. LAMP-UPPER DRAUGHT. 

case the light displayed by the lantern is white 
and the colors red and green are produced by 
colored lenses attached to the semaphore Fig. 201. 

FENCES. 

For a number of years the barbed wire fence 
was the principal one used to enclose the right of 



318 BUILmNG AND REPAIRINO RAILWAYS. 




Fig. 205. 

BARBED WIRE FENCE. 



way — Fig. 205 represents this style of fence. 
The barbed wire fence was followed by the 
woven wire fence, the McMullen, Lamb and 
Page being of this class. Fig. 206 represents the 




Fig. 206. 



PAGE WOVEN WIRE FENCE. 



u 

1 


• ( 


if \ 


9 


• 


1 I 


f 1 




' 


1 M 


















1 . 


















i 


















1 . 


















1 Hi 






^ 












•', 


















1 "— 4- 












\ 






b 








\ < ^ 


\ \ 




- 



Fig. 207. 

JONES* WIRE FENCE. 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 



319 



Page Woven Wire Fence. There is now coming 
in use for railways a wire fence woven on the 
field; the Jones and Cyclone being of this type. 
Figs. 207, 208 and 209 illustrate them. In 




Fig. 208. 

FLEXIBLE CLAMP USED IN MAKING JONES' WIRE FENCE. 




Fig. 209. 



CYCLONE WIRE FENCE AND THE MACHINE FOR MAKING IT. 



320 BUILDING AND BE PAIRING RAILWAYS, 



place of cedar posts, which have been exclusively 
used until recently, iron posts are now being in- 
troduced; the weak point with an iron post is its 
rusting in the ground. To overcome this The 
Indestructible Post Co., of Brazil, Ind., are mak- 
ing terra cotta bases, which are set in the post 
holes and the inside partially filled with a thin 
grout of Portland cement; in this grout the iron 
post is set, thus leaving only that part of the 
post which can corrode above the ground where 
it can be inspected and painted. Fig. 210 repre- 
sents this style of base. 



^WF^^. 




Fig. 210. 

TERRA COTTA BASE FOR IRON POSTS FOR FENCES AND SIGNS. 
CATTLE GUARDS. 

To completely fence in the right of way, a 
cattle guard is necessary to be placed where the 
fence line crosses the track at crossings. For- 
merly cattle guards were mere open pits and the 
track was carried over them on beams of wood 
with the edges chamfered. They were found to 
be expensive to maintain and have been aban- 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 



321 




American Cattle Guard. 

Fig. 211. 

CATTLE GUARD. 




Fig. 212. 

CLIMAX STOCK GUARD. 




Fig. 213. 

SHEFFIELD CATTLE GUARD. 



322 BUILDING AND BE PAIRING RAILWAYS. 

doned, surface guards being now used almost ex- 
clusively. Figs. 211, 212 and 213 represent 
some of the stj^les used. 

TRACK SCALES. 

The revenue of a railv^ay is based on the rate 
per 100 pounds, and it is therefore vital to have 
the weights correct. Car load freight is weighed 
on track scales, and as the traffic becomes heavy 
and the schedule faster, the delay caused by 
weighing becomes annoying to shippers. To 
overcome this and permit rapid weighing an at- 
tachment to the track scales has been made and 
is known as the Automatic Weighing and Re- 
cording Attachment. Fig. 214 gives a view^ of 
one make of track scales. 




Fig. 214. 

RAILROAD TRACK SCALES. 
ARCH BRIDGES AND CONCRETE STEEL CONSTRUCTION. 

Arch Culverts: The general practice on new 
lines, is to carry the track over ravines and the 
smaller streams on pile and trestle bridges. 
These structures are a constant source of expense 
and if not kept in proper repair become danger- 
ous. As the traffic of a line becomes heavy and 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 323 

the income of a company increases, it is the 
general practice to replace these pile and trestle 
bridges by embankments and arched culverts or 
stone arch bridges. 

The actual money economy of the wooden 
structure as compared with the stone arch culvert 
is not so great as might be supposed, for the rea- 
son that although the cost of the pile or trestle 
bridge is small there is a constant outlay for 
repairs; while on the other hand the stone arch 
culvert and earth embankments while costly to 
construct need but little outlay afterwards for 
repairs. 

But even where the cost of each when capital- 
ized is the same, the stone arch culvert has this 
advantage, it is usually constructed during times 
of financial prosperity and when a financial 
depression comes the management has a struc- 
ture on which but a nominal sum is required 
annually to keep it in repair. 

Figs. 215, 215a and 215b show the various 
parts of an arch culvert, and the terms used to 
designate them are as follows: 

Abutment A, the masonry which rests on the 
foundation and affords the support for the springer 
or skewback and the masonry backing to the arch. 

Springer B, in a semi-circular arch the lowest 
or first arch stone. 

Skewback B, in a segmental arch the top of 
the abutment where it is dressed off on a radial 
line to receive the first arch stone. 

Spring Line S, the line formed by the inner 
lower edge of the springer for a semi-circular 




(324) 




(325) 



326 



BUILDING AND BEPAIEING BAILWAYS. 




Fig. 215b. 

PERSPECTIVE VIEW OP A SEMI-CIRCULAR ARCH. 



arch or the inner top edge of the skewback for a 
segmental arch. 

Ring Stone V, the stones dressed to dimension 
which show on the face of the arch, they are also 
called voussoirs. 

Span, the horizontal distance between the 
spring lines. 

Rise^ the vertical distance from the spring line 
to the highest point of the inside of the arch. 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 327 

Voussoirs V, the ring stone which shows at the 
end of the arch. 

Keystone K, the central or top voussoir or ring 
stone. 

Crown C, D, the crown of an arch is the highest 
part of the ring stone. 

Haunchj the haunch of an arch is that portion 
between the crown and the spring line. 

Spandrel. The spandrel is the face wall of the 
culvert which is above the Ring Stone. 

Wi7ig Wall, the wall which connects with the 
spandrel and abutment to support the sloping 
portions of the embankment. 

Soffit S, T, S, the inner or concave surface of 
the arch. 

Intrados, the curved line formed on the soffit 
by the intersection of a vertical plane at right 
angles to the axis of the arch. 

Exti^ados^ the curved line formed on the outside 
of an arch by a vertical plane at right angles to 
the axis of the arch. 

Arch Sheeting^ the voussoirs which do not 
show at the end of the arch, being both the 
crown and haunch. 

Backing, masonry with horizontal and vertical 
joints carried over the skewback or springer and 
haunch of the arch. 

String Course, a course of ring stone or vous- 
soirs extending the full length of the arch. 

Coursing Joint E, is the radial joint of a string 
course. 

Heading Joint H, is one in a plane at right 
angles to the axis of the arch. 



328 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

A semi-circular arch is illustrated by Fig. 215 
the line of intersection of the inside of the arch 
and a plane at right angles to the axis of the arch 
is a semi-circle. 

A segmental arch is illustrated by Fig. 215a 
the line of intersection of the inside of the arch 
and a plane at right angles to the axis of the 
arch is less than a semi-circle. 

There are other forms of arches but these two 
are the principle ones used for railroad bridges; 
among the other forms are the elliptical, three 
center, etc. 

The first step taken in designing a stone arch 
culvert or bridge is to make a careful topogra- 
phical map of the stream and its approaches on 
both sides; the axis of the arch should be at right 
angles to the alignment of the railroad and such 
an arch is called a right cylindrical or elliptical 
arch. Should a survey show that a right arch 
will not be suitable or possible the axis of the 
arch may be placed at some other than a right 
angle with the alignm ent of the railroad. An arch 
so built is called an oblique or askew arch. The 
following are some of the reasons which compel 
the use of the oblique or askew arch; a stream hav- 
ing a rapid fall and large volume of water cross- 
ing the right of way at an acute angle if checked 
suddenly by trying to turn it through a right arch 
is liable to scour out the foundation, unless 
expensive work is done to protect the foundations 
for the abutments and wing walls; if the banks of 
a stream are rock it may be too expensive to 
make the necessary excavation to put in a right 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 329 

arch or the cost of procuring land to enable the 
channel of a stream to be diverted may be so 
great that an oblique or askew arch must be used; 
however it should be the aim of the engineer in 
all cases to locate the axis of the arch as near as 
possible to a right angle with the alignment of 
the railroad. 

Having decided the direction of the axis of an 
arch, the next step is to determine the size of the 
opening, w^hich is fixed by the span, rise of the 
arch and height of the abutments. Fig. 215c 
gives some of the various styles used for planning 
the wing walls. When the style shown at A is 
used the slope must be protected by rip rap as 
shown in Figure 168 — styles B, C, and D require 
less rip rap. Placing the wing walls at an angle 
of 30 degrees with the axis of the arch (as in 
styles C and D) is often done. A common prac- 
tice is to make a return on the abutment as at X 
style C this is easier to construct than the style 
shown at D but style D has the advantage over 
all the others of affording less obstruction to 
drift passing through the opening; it also con- 
forms to the laws of the flow of water through 
openings better than other styles. 

For smaller openings it is quite common to 
use the semi-circular arch, but this is not deemed 
economical construction. A segmental arch with 
a central angle of 120 degrees for the same span 
as a semi-circular arch has but 77 per cent the 
length of intrados compared with the semi-circu- 
lar arch. Or if the length of intrados is taken as 
the same in both styles of arch, then the seg- 



330 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 






^ 



^ 






4--- 



' 3 

< 

fa 

>^ 



n:j 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 331 

mental arch with a central angle of 120 degrees 
has a span 33 percent greater than the semi- 
circular arch. 

The segmental arch has a greater thrust on 
the abutments and theoretically requires heavier 
ones. Practically bridges of this class have much 
more masonry in the abutments than the thrust 
of the arch requires. The result of practical 
experience appears to be that the support of the 
embankment requires these heavy abutments. 

The dimensions for wing walls and spandrel 
are fixed by the same laws, which govern retain- 
ing walls — which they practically are. Volumes 
have been written on the theory of the arch but 
engineers have not as yet united on any one 
theory, and from the nature of the masonry in 
the arch the calculations are considered by some 
engineers as of doubtful value and are used as 
aids in deciding on the dimensions for the arch; 
the safer coarse is to be guided by the dimensions 
used by engineers in the construction of arches 
of similar span which time has shown to be safe. 

The following table gives the dimensions of 
some stone arch bridges which have been erected 
a number of years: 



332 



BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 



o ^ 

00 



a 
o 

u 






o»oooiftot^oi>irso<Ncoi>ooico t^ 

ot'-oot^ioaioosaiooii-itootcxrjiciot^ 



^ ^ >r o 



OCOOirH 


o 


Tt«0 lOQO 


<N 






(I> r-H 


a)p-4 


'^so'^ ^ 


ofl 


^.^2 fl 


a CI 


^ o -^^ 5- 












a- 



W.J:; 

•*< (X)-* 



a- 



m 



a, 



w^w ^ 



^^ 



C.2 



O tHOCO 
lO COiO ^ O i-H C 



a 
a 



QOWOOiOQOCOOCOasOt-iOO-^OCOOOp^rHtO«DTfO 
i-l rH iH i-H CM rH t-t 



o 



bo 



05.-3 .50 



o 



O) be c tic'CS c8 c8 
M "2 --^ C3 fl C3 ^ 






'Oh .^ 



tf 



:0 I'd 









I-S raj 






o« 



: t- c3-: 






^fl c3 bc^ 



"SH^ -o 






e8i2 s: t, o ceXJ 
feCQc/3CQfflO<J 



5^ t»c 

03 Q (D 

,Wc3 C3 
0) Si 

t: . a 

<D C3 C3 



*3- 2 e3 > c S 
§ ^ bD.T: W 5h 

r^^ G^ ,fe, 

L-- „- _ .. ^ <1? . 



"U 



2pq c o o-S 

0) •5'd t-i O) tn 















^ ^ eo O -tJ > .1 



.^6 

-^ d 
c8 be 

^5 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 338 

Concrete : Within recent years the manufact- 
ure of cement in America has rapidly developed 
so that its cost has been so reduced that it has 
become available for extended use in railway 
construction. Along with this decrease of cost 
of cement great improvements have been made 
in machinery for crushing rock and for mixing it 
with cement, thus producing concrete at a price 
which allows of its use on an extended scale, and 
as this material possesses the elements of great 
strength and practical indestructibility it has 
become a most important factor in the building 
and repairing of railways. 

Concrete is a mixture of stone, sand, cement 
and water in such proportions that the sand fills 
the voids in the stone and the cement fills the 
voids in the sand and forms a coating on the 
sand and sbone. Sufficient water is used to make 
a mortar of the cement and to wet the surface of 
the stone and sand. 

The stone used in making concrete can be of a 
quality that could not be used for masonry; for 
instance a stone which the frost would disinte- 
grate can safely be used for concrete provided it 
is hard and possesses the required crushing and 
tensile strength required in the concrete. 

Stone of a uniform size, has a larger percent- 
age of voids, than when mixed sizes are used, the 
objection to the use of stone of a uniform size is 
that more sand is required and hence more cement; 
thus increasing the cost. For this reason some 
engineers allow the run of the crusher to be used; 
and only screen out the fine dust from the broken 
stone. 



334 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

A stone which breaks with angular surfaces, 
as a cube, is preferable to one which crushes with 
spherical or curved surfaces, the rough angular 
surface affording a better surface for the adher- 
ence of the cement than a smooth curved surface. 
For this reason gravel is not deemed as good for 
concrete as crushed stone. 

The surface of the stone must be free from dirt 
or foreign substance, to enable the cement to 
adhere to its surface. If gravel is used it should 
be washed on account of its often being coated 
more or less with loam. Where the construction 
is massive, large pieces of stone can be bedded in 
the concrete, thus not only reducing cost but 
adding strength especially if these stones are so 
bedded that their base lies- in one course of con- 
crete and their top in another course. 

Sand commonly known as sharp sand, is pre- 
ferred, for the same reason that rough angular 
stone is found better than smooth. Bank sand 
is also open to the same objection as gravel, the 
particles of sand being more or less coated with 
loam, so that the cement cannot adhere to the 
true surface of the sand. For this reason sand 
should be washed where inspection shows it to 
contain loam. Loamy sand when moist will soil 
the hands or a handkerchief, and when slightly 
moistened and compressed in the form of a sphere 
and laid on a table will tend to hold its shape, 
while clear sand will at once fall to pieces. 

Sand is really rock crushed by nature, and the 
dust screened from crushed rock is angular and 
can be used as sand or can be mixed with sand 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 335 

and used in making concrete. Some engineers 
permit the run of the crusher to be used in 
making concrete, and do not require the fine 
screenings to be separated from the larger stone; 
the objection made to this method is that with 
the sand added and the screenings left in the 
stone it is difficult to secure the proper propor- 
tion of fine material to fill the voids in the stone. 

Cements are of two classes commonly known 
as "Portland" and "Natural" cement. Portland 
cement has a higher tensile strength and will 
sustain a greater compressive force or weight, 
than the natural cements; it also possesses 
hydraulic properties and will "set" or harden 
under water; hence it is often called "hydraulic" 
cement. 

Light concrete construction and all outside 
work in massive concrete construction, should be 
laid, or made, with Portland cement. 

In a general way it may be said that the voids 
in crushed rock which will pass through a 2i inch 
ring are taken to be 50^ of the volume of the 
stone, and the voids in sand are found to be from 
40^ to 50^ of the volume of the sand. This is 
the reason that the usual proportions specified 
for cement, sand and stone are one volume of 
cement, two volumes of sand and four volumes 
of stone. The object aimed at in deciding on the 
proportions are to use an amount of cement 
slightly in excess of the voids in the sand, result- 
ing in a mortar rich enough to thoroughly coat 
with cement each grain of sand and the surface 
of the rock and fill all voids. Cement used in 



336 BUILDINO AND EEPAIRINO RAILWAYS. 

excess of the amount necessary to accomplish 
the above result is not only a waste of money 
but an injury to the work on account of the 
strains produced in the concrete masonry by the 
chemical action of the cement in setting. 

The sand when used in proper proportions will 
fill the voids in the rock. An ideal concrete is 
one in which the mass of rock is rammed close 
together, the voids of this mass of rock being com- 
pacted with sand and the voids of the sand filled 
with cement and the entire surface of sand and 
stone coated with cement. Hence the finer the 
cement the more thoroughly the surfaces of the 
stone and sand are coated and the more com- 
pletely the voids in the sand are filled. 

Wherever the work to be done will require a 
large amount of concrete the voids in the stone 
as actually used, also in the sand, should be 
determined and the proportion of cement, sand 
and stone used which will make a solid mass. 

Cement is furnished packed in barrels, or loose 
in sacks of a capacity of four sacks to a barrel. 
The volume of a cement barrel is usually about 
3i cubic feet. In making concrete it is not wise 
to fix the proportions by barrels for the sand and 
rock are loose or not compacted, while the cement 
is; if, therefore, one barrel of compacted cement 
is used to two barrels of loose sand the mortar 
will contain more cement than is necessary. 
Good results have been obtained by emptying 
several barrels of compacted cement on a plat- 
form and then shoveling the cement back into 
barrels again, leaving it unpacked the same as 
the sand and stone; the increase in volume of the 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRdOTION. 337 

cement varies from hO% to 60^. Taking the 
volume of a compacted barrel of cement as H 
barrels of loose cement, and the voids in the 
sand and stone at 50/2 then a correct proportion 
for a concrete would be as follows : 

One barrel of compacted cement 
Three barrels of loose sand 
Six barrels of loose rock 

A more exact method of determining the pro- 
portions is as follows : Thoroughly dry the sand, 
and weigh one cubic yard, then determine the 
amount of voids in the sand: and weigh an 
amount of cement equal in volume to 5^ more 
than the voids in the sand. We now know the 
weight of cement required for one cubic yard of 
sand and need not pay any further attention to 
the amount of moisture in the sand. 

Cement is always housed and protected from 
the weather and by proportioning it by weight a 
uniform amount is obtained; sand and stone are 
not usually protected from the weather and their 
proportions should be determined by measure. 

The amount of water to be used in making 
concrete cannot safely be specified. The sand 
and stone cannot be kept housed from the 
weather. At one time they are both perfectly 
dry, again, after a storm, they are saturated with 
water. The only practical way is to specify the 
required consistency of the mixture and use the 
necessary amount of water to secure it. The 
stone should always be moistened before placing 
it in the mixture. As a general rule water should 
be added to the mixture until the concrete 



338 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

becomes a quaking mass like liver or jelly; in this 
condition it can be rammed easily and cheaply 
and assures a solid mass. Concrete of this con- 
sistency when rammed will have a layer of soft 
mortar on top which requires the workmen to 
wear gum boots but should not be fluid enough 
so that the workmen are wading in the concrete 
as in mud. 

There are certain conditions which require the 
use of a dry concrete as in the filling of a pneu- 
matic caisson and repairs to the foundations of 
piers, abutments and retaining walls. In such 
work the concrete should be as dry as possible, 
consistent with the proper setting of the cement, 
to enable it to be thoroughly compacted. 

Concrete is now made by machinery. There 
are two types of machines in use for this purpose, 
known as the ''Continuous" and ''Batch" mixers. 
To properly supply the material to a continuous 
concrete mixer, there should be two platforms 
arranged so that the material can be proportioned 
for two separate batches; while the workmen are 
shoveling into the mixer the material placed on 
one platform another batch of material is being 
placed on the second platform. 

The material should be placed on the platforms 
in the following manner, first a form, generally 
rectangular, without a bottom or top the cubic 
contents of which is equal to the amount of stone 
for one batch should be filled with the crushed 
stone and lifted up and passed over to the second 
platform; on top of the stone should be placed 
another form of the same length and width as 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 339 

the first and of the proper height to hold the 
required amount of sand ; after filling this form 
with sand it should be lifted up and passed over 
to the second platform; on top of the sand a third 
form, of the same length and width as the first 
and of the proper height should be placed to hold 
the required amount of cement ; after this form 
has been filled with cement it should be lifted 
and passed to the second platform. Some engi- 
neers shovel the mixture as above made direct 
into the mixer and depend on the mixer entirely 
to thoroughly mix the material: others turn the 
batch over once or twice with shovels before it is 
shoveled into the mixer. 

Gravity mixers (Figs. 215d, 215e and 215f) 
represent types of '^continuous'' mixers. In the 
use of this style of mixer the material for the 
batch must be placed on an elevated platform or 
hillside as in Fig. 215g. 

The ''Drake'' mixer (Fig. 215h) can boused 
as a continuous or batch mixer. The view shows 
an attachment for feeding and grading the 
material, thus doing away with the necessity of 
preparing a properly proportioned batch on a plat- 
form or in a bin. In Fig. 21 5i the Drake mixer 
is shown on a car with a conveyor attached to 
the car, to carry the concrete to the bridge or 
retaining wall. In the rear of the car on which 
the cement mixer is placed are the cars contain- 
ing the stone, sand and cement. 

The ''Cockburn" mixer (Fig. 215j) is another 
type of a continuous mixer. Here the mixing is 
not done by curved disks attached to a shaft, as 



340 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

in the Drake mixer. The mixer is a rectangular 
box, with blades attached to the inside and by 
the rotary motion of the box on its longitudinal 
axis the material is repeatedly turned over and 
conveyed from one end of the mixer to the other. 
The '^Ransome" continuous mixer, is a cylinder 
with a spiral riveted to the inside of the cylinder, 
the cylinder revolves on rollers and the material 
which is fed at one end of the cylinder is conveyed 
by the spiral to the other end. Fig. 215k shows 




Fig. 215d. 

GRAVITY CONCRETE MIXER, USING BAFFLE PINS ONLY. 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 



341 



Funnef 



^SUde 









•' Ba^W /^ 



Barffie? /^ 

4 



Discharge 

Fig. 215e. 

GRAVITY CONCRETE MIXER, USING BAFFLE PLATES ONLY. 




Fig. 215f. 



GRAVITY CONCRETE MIXER, USING BOTH BAFFLE PINS AND 
PLATES AS MADE BY THE CONTRACTORS' PLANT CO. 
The attendant who loads the barrows sees the material as it is being 
mixed and regulates the supply of water. 



342 



BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 



a plant with this style of mixer. The manufac- 
turers also make a batch mixer, which can be 
used as a continuous mixer by the addition of a 
hopper, as shown in Fig. 2151; this mixer is a 




Fig. 215g. 

THE METHOD OF USING A GRAVITY CONCRETE MIXER. - 

revolving cylinder. By means of the lever shown 
in the cut the pan in front can be turned up so as 
to charge the mixer, and to discharge the contents 
the pan is turned down as shown in the cut. Fig. 
215m shows this mixer in practical use. 

The ''Cube" mixer, is a batch mixer. In it the 
axis of revolution passes through two opposite 
corners of the cube; a revolving motion can be 
given the cubical box so that it can be charged 
at one end of the revolving axis and emptied at 
the other. Fig. 215n illustrates this style of 
mixer. 

The "Smith" mixer is a batch mixer and con- 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 



343 




Fig. 215h. 



DRAKE CONCRETE MIXER, WITH AUTOMATIC FEEDING AT- 
TACHMENT. 



344 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 




STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 345 

sists of two cones attached at their bases and 
caused to revolve on the axis of the cones, as in 
the cubical mixer a revolving motion can be 
given the mixer, so that it can be charged at the 
apex of one cone and the material discharged at 




Fig. 215j. 

THE COCKBURN BARROW AND MACHINE CO.'S CONCRETE 

MIXER. 

the apex of the other cone. Fig. 215o shows this 
machine in the position to discharge a mixed 
batch and receive the material for a new batch. 
Water is supplied to the mixture in all of these 
machines by perforated pipes, the supply being 
controlled by a valve, and in all of them, except 
the Cockburn mixer the attendant can see the 
material as it is in the process of being mixed 
and thus can adjust the amount of water as 
desired for a wet or dry concrete. Engineers 
and contractors are still debating the question as 
to which is the best method, continuous mixing 
or mixing in batches. 



346 



BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 




STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 



347 




Fig. 2151. 

RANSOMK'S CONCRETE MIXER. 



Concrete Steel Construction: Arch bridges are 
now being built of concrete, reinforcing the con- 
crete with steel beams. This gives a stronger 
bridge than a steel bridge or a masonry arch bridge. 
The concrete holds the steel in true line and pre- 
vents any tendency to buckle or bend when under 
a strain. On account of the constantly increasing 
weight, speed and length of trains, bridges have 
to sustain not only greater loads but suffer greater 
shocks and consequent greater vibration than 
formerly. As the aim of a masonry arch bridge, 



348 



BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 




STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 



349 





Fig. 215n. 

CUBICAL CONCRETE MIXEH. 



or the reinforced concrete steel bridge, is to 
secure a roadbed similiar to that in a cut or on 
an embankment, the designer of the concrete steel 
bridge who reduces the dimension of the concrete 
on account of the additional strength secured from 
the steel beams, may in a few years find his struc- 
ture too light for the heavier and longer trains. 
Some of the causes which have led to the 



350 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 




STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 351 

adoption of concrete and concrete steel construc- 
tion are (1) the facility with which this kind of 
construction can be used at places where stone 
which will stand the weather is difficult to secure 
or if it can be obtained is expensive. (2) the 
comparative ease with which material for this 
style of construction can be obtained and the 
rapidity with which the work can be done. (3 ) 
the ability to use less skilled labor to advantage, 
than where stone cutters and masons are required. 

The cost of concrete steel construction is less 
than masonry. In some cases as much as 30/S in 
cost is claimed to be saved but this will of neces- 
sity depend on local conditions. At one locality 
the cost of a stone which will stand the weather 
may be expensive and at another it could be 
secured at a moderate figure — again the differ- 
ence in the cost of cutting and dressing stone 
secured from different quarries must be consid- 
ered. For these reasons the percentage of saving 
in any contemplated work will differ according 
to local conditions. 

There are several methods of using metal and 
concrete, which are protected by patents, the 
methods can be divided into two general forms. 
First using the merchant sizes as found in the 
metal trade. Second specially designed forms to 
carry out the ideas of inventors. 

The **Melan" system, where beams and other 
merchant forms are imbedded in the concrete 
belongs to the first class, this style is shown in 
Fig. 215p. 

The ''Thacher'^ system uses merchant steel or 



352 



BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 




Fig. 215p. 



MELAN ARCH BRIDGE, OVER FALLS CREEK, INDIANAPOLIS, 

IND. 

iron bars and to increase the adbesion of the 
concrete, steel rivets are placed in the bars. 
These two systems are types of the first forms, 
the following systems are types of the second 
forms. 

Corrugated bars, specially rolled with enlarged 
ribs on the rods to increase the adhesion of the 
concrete and make the concrete and steel a more 
uniform mass. This is illustrated in Fig. 215q 
and the method of incorporating it in the con- 
crete is shown in Figs. 215t and 215u. Twisted 
bars are another method adopted to increase the 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 



353 




Fig. 215q, 

CORRUGATED STEEL BARS. 

adhesion between the concrete and metal. These 
are illustrated in Fig. 215r and the method of 
incorporating them in the concrete is the same 
as shown for the Corrugated bars. Thachers 
patent bars are round steel rods flattened at 




Fig. 215r. 

TWISTED STEEL BARS. 



intervals of equal distance apart as shown in Fig. 
215s and they are used in the concrete in the 
same manner as the corrugated or twisted bars. 
The adhesion between steel and concrete has 
been found to be from 500 to 700 pounds per 




Fig. 215s. 

THACHER PATENT BARS, 



354 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 




STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 



355 





Fig. 215ii. 

CONCRETE ARCH RODS. 

square inch, and the object of the various forms 
of steel bars described is to increase this by 
mechanical means. The corrugated or twisted 
bar of steel is not only held in the concrete by 
the force of the concrete adhering to it but is 
held by an additional force which amounts to 
that necessary to crush the concrete if the rod 
were pulled or driven through the mass after it 
had set around the rod. The coefficient of expan- 
sion of concrete has been found to be 0.0000055 
and of steel to be 0.0000065 for each change of 
one degree of temperature by Fahrenheit ther- 
mometer. 

Properly reinforced concrete steel, according 
to a French authority, M. Considine, will sustain 
an elongation, or tension, of 1 in 1000 without 
rupture, while plain concrete will fail under an 
elongation of 1 in 10000. The metal distributes 
the elongation through the mass, while in plain 
concrete the elongation takes place at the weak- 
est point which becomes the point of rupture. 

In this chapter the discussion is confined to the 



356 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

application of reinforced concrete steel to bridge 
construction. The use of concrete steel is also 
applicable to retaining walls, floors, grain bins, etc. 

In an arch the rods are placed as near the in- 
trados and extrados as can be done and not 
weaken the mass of concrete or produce cracks; 
this distance is usually about six inches. The 
object aimed at is to secure the same result as is 
obtained from the top and bottom flanges of a 
plate girder. The rods are placed on a Mne with 
the intrados and extrados and also parallel with 
the axis of the arch, this is illustrated in figures 
215t and 215u. 

A concrete steel arch bridge, in which the old 
structure was utilized, is shown in figures 215t 
and 215u. The piers of the old bridge are made 
a part of the new bridge and the method of bind- 
ing the new concrete work to the old piers by 
short lengths of corrugated steel rods is shown in 
Fig. 215t. The corrugated rods for the arch are 
put in position on the falsework before the con- 
crete work is commenced and the concrete is 
made thin and packed around them, care being 
taken to have the concrete thoroughly rammed 
and its thorough adhesion to the rods secured. 

In the actual work of concrete steel bridge 
construction the amount of concrete laid each 
day extends from one abutment to another and 
the arch is completely finished for the distance 
covered by the days work; on commencing the 
second days work the surface of the concrete laid 
the previous day is thoroughly drenched with 
water to secure a bond with the second days 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 



357 




Fig. 215v. 



BIG MUDDY BRIDGE, WEST VIEW. 



work where the two join in the arch; this is 
shown in Fig. 215p where the concrete has been 
laid from the abutment up to the crown of the 
arch on one side of the span, and concrete is 
being laid from the pier up the other side of the 
span to join the concrete already laid. By this 
method a ring of concrete is laid each day, the 
width of the ring depending on the size of the 
bridge and the number of cubic yards that can be 
laid each day. 

. To secure a finish on the face of the concrete, 
no stone is laid in the mortar close to the forms. 



858 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 




k 



Fig. 215w. 

BIG MUDDY BRIDGE. 



View of transverse spandrel arch adjacent to south abutment, look- 
ing west. In this view the concrete work of the west half is completed, 
a portion of the pier between this and the next arch north is built, 
and the skeleton steel work is all in place and adjusted ready for the 
construction of the molds. 



The mortar placed directly against the form 
varies according to the kind of finish desired; 
generally the mortar used is one part Portland 
cement and one part sand. In places w^here it is 
desirable to have an attractive appearance given 
the structure, fine crushed stone is added and 
w^hen the forms are removed the mortar is washed 
out with brushes giving the structure the appear- 
ance of solid rock. 

Other methods of construction are adopted. 



STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 359 

In Fig. 215v a different principle has been adopted. 
Here the object aimed at is to secure economy 
in construction by the use of concrete and at the 
same time secure the advantages of a stone arch. 
To attain this no steel rods were used in the arch 
proper, and the concrete in the arch Avas laid in 
courses parallel with the axis of the arch, or in 
other words the concrete was laid in string 
courses, and each course allowed to set before 
another course was laid against it. The spandrel 
and spandrel filling were made of reinforced con- 
crete steel, the steel used being old rails tied 
together with iron rods as shown in Fig. 215w. 
This bridge consists of three 140 feet spans. Fig. 
215x is a view of the central span. 



360 



BUILDING AND BEP AIRING RAILWAYS. 




CHAPTER VII. 

CONSTRUCTING TRACK. 

When the work of the tracklaying force with 
the track machine, as described in another chap- 
ter, is finished, the track is far from being com- 
pleted. The tracklaying force has left only the 
main line with such sidings as were necessary for 
handling material and the construction trains. 
Some of these sidings were temporary and de- 
signed only to meet the needs of construction 
operations; such will have to be abolished. An- 
other and smaller force follows the tracklaying 
force, its mission being to complete the track 
(without the tracklaying machine) by laying the 
required permanent sidings, passing tracks, house 
tracks, team tracks, private tracks, switches, 
cross-overs, derailing devices, guardrails, frogs, 
etc., and, if necessary, widening the gauge and 
making the necessary elevation of rails at curves, 
so that the track may be in condition for the 
operation of trains. 

Passing tracks should be located as decided, 
jointly, by the engineering or construction de- 
partment and the operating department; they 
should be made somewhat longer than the largest 
tonnage train, or trains will be delayed in pass- 
ing. If possible they should be placed at sum- 
mits or where there is enough length of level or 

(361) 



362 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

light grade for the locomotive to work to advant- 
age before a heavy grade is reached. It is de- 
sirable on many accounts that passing tracks 
should be at stations, but if business does not de- 
mand a depot and an agent at such points, pro- 
vision should be made for a telegraph operator to 
be stationed thereat for the purpose of attending 
to orders relative to the movement of trains. 

Water stations should, if possible, be placed at 
passing tracks, so that through trains will be de- 
layed as little as possible. It is, however, a diffi- 
cult problem to secure at one point favorable 
conditions for a water station, proper grades, the 
best location for a station, and the proper dis- 
tance between passing tracks to get the most 
economical service from locomotives and train 
crews. 

House tracks are not essential at small depots 
where a limited amount of business is done and 
where carload lots can be handled on a passing 
track as is sometimes done on branches or on a 
track to an elevator or warehouse. Where the 
business warrants a house track, and trains are 
not frequent, as on branches, the house track can 
be used as a passing track. When, however, the 
business at a station becomes large, both house 
tracks and passing tracks Avill have to be pro- 
vided. 

Team tracks are necessary when the volume of 
business is such that a track or tracks are re- 
quired exclusively for carload shipments. 

Transfer platforms are necessary at points 
where carload lots of merchandise are to be dis- 



CONSTRUCTING TRACK. 363 

tributed into cars for way or local freights; this 
operation in the conduct of traffic, takes place 
under the following conditions: 

(1) At junction points of two railway systems. 
(2) At junctions between the main line and 
branches. (3) Some lines at terminal points or 
large jobbing centers load merchandise into the 
cars promiscuously for points over say 300 miles 
distant, and run these cars out by fast freight. 
This freight and the freight picked up by the local 
freights is distributed at a certain point into cars 
for local freight trains running beyond the 300 
mile point. 

Private track or tracks to manufacturing 
plants, elevators, warehouses, etc., are laid as the 
business develops, and provision should be made 
in the original plan of yards and switches for 
such growth as far as possible. 

The arrangement of tracks as often used at a 
small town is shown in Fig. 216. Fig. 217 gives 
the arrangement of tracks at a junction of 
two systems where the business is conducted by 
a joint agent. An arrangement of tracks at a 
point where a branch connects with the main line 
is shown by Fig. 218; in this case it is assumed 
that the locomotives on the main line run through 
or are not changed at this point. For a point 
where locomotives are changed on account of the 
length of run or change of grade, Fig. 219 repre- 
sents the tracks, buildings, etc., often used. These 
plans are only intended to present the essential re- 
quirements; the arrangement of the tracks in 
actual practice will depend on the topographical 



364 



BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS 



EB" 



a 1 fig - 



■?_ 



Fig. 216. 

PLAN OF TRACKS FOR A SMALL COUNTRY TOWN. 

A— Main line track. B— Passing track. C~House track. D— Depot. 
E— Coal and oil house and out buildings. G— Section foreman's tool house. 
H— Elevator and warehouse. K— Stock pens. L— Water tank. 




Fig. 217. 

PLAN OF TRACKS FOR A JUNCTION OF TWO RAILWAY SYSTEMS. 

A A'— Main line tracks. B B'— Passing tracks. C— Passenger Depot. 
D— Freight Depot. E— Transfer platform. G— Transfer track. H—House 
track also team track. 1— Siding connecting main line tracks. 

conditions or lay of the ground, the character and 
volume of the business, the local conditions as 
to whether the point is a manufacturing, mining 
or agricultural center, etc. 

The main line should have as few switches in 
it as possible, and to this end three throw switches 
are largely used; the cost of yards can be reduced 
and economy in handling cars secured by the use 
of three throw and slip switches; however, where 



CONSTRUCTING TBACK. 



'\Q5 




Fig. 218. 



PLAN OF TRACKS FOR A JUNCTION OF A BRANCH WITH THE 

MAIN LINE. 

A-Main line. B— Branch. C-Passing track. D— House track . E— 
Transfer track. G Hand 1-Sidings. K-Coal track. M-Depot. O-Trans- 
fer platform.^, P-Coal shed. Q-Water tank. R. R -Stand Pipes S- 
Koundhouse. T— Elevator and warehouse. V— Stock pens. L and L'— 
Section foreman's tool house. <*uu x-. 




Fig. 219. 



PLAN OF TRACKS AND BUILDINGS FOR A YARD WHERE LOCO- 
MOTIVES ARE CHANGED AND WHERE THE GRADES 
ALTER, THUS CAUSING A CHANGE IN THE TON- 
NAGE OF TRAINS EACH SIDE OF THE YARD. 

A— Main line track. B B' B''— Lead tracks. C— Coal shed track. D and 
B — Coaling tracks for locomotives. E— Ashpit track for cleaning fire boxes 
of locomotives. G — Track for ashes cars, -x— Track to machine shop, store- 
house and sand shed. I— Track connecting the lead tracks B and B' so loco- 
motives can reach the sand shed M, ash pits L and coal shed K without 
using the turntable. K— Coal shed. L— Ash pit. M— Sand tank. N— Sand 
shed and sand dryer. O— Machine shop. P— Storehouse. R— Roucdhoust. 
S— Sorting and storage tracks. T— Water tank. 



866 



BUILD I KG AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 



o 

CM 



fe 



a 



O 

o 

tf . 

go 

%% 
so 

Ss 

W« 

E^ 
^^ 

Sh 

Pm hh 

M O 

^« 

ft. Q 

2g 
^° 

M 

n 



CONSTRUCTING TRACK, 



367 



there is no interlocking plant and they are oper- 
ated by a switchman, an error on his part when 
not observed by the engineer will result in de- 
railing the engine, if nothing worse. In Fig. 219, 




:^5^,^5^;§j:^[55?wnt5iG?^ 



Fig. 221. 

VIEW OF A THREE THROW SPLIT SWITCH. 



by adding a third lead track B, and using slip 
switches, cars can be taken from the center of 
the storage tracks to the main line or from one 
storage track to another. Fig. 220 illustrates the 
construction of a combination slip switch cross- 
ing. A view of a three throw split switch is 
given by Fig. 221 and Fig. 222 shows the con- 
struction at the switch points. 

In laying out sidetracks and yards, the correct 
location of the frogs and rails from the headblocks 
to the frogs and from the frogs to the sidings is a 
mathematical problem, though it is often done by 



368 BUILDING AND REPAIEINQ RAILWAYS. 




BOTTOM CQNNEC TION 



SIDE CONNECTION 



Fig. 222. 

arrangement op the switch points for a three throw 
spl.it switch. 

the section foreman's eye, often to the injury of 
the rails and rolling stock.* 

Often in practice the frog angle and switch 
point of a split switch and the rail thrown and 
frog angle of a stub switch are taken as part of 
the curve of the rail from the headblock to the 
frog. This is not mathematically correct, especi- 
ally with the angle of the frog. The Elliot Frog 
& Switch Company have given dimensions in de- 
tail for laying out switches where the switch 
point and frog angle are taken as tangent to the 
curve of the rail from the headblock to the frog; 
Figs. 223 to 230 are single throw split switches 

•'^The authors on railway location and problems connected 
with laying out curves, etc., give the mathematical demonstra- 
tions of side track work. See Appendix K. 



CONSTRUCTING TRACK. 



369 







^^#:^5c ^ ^33'-J 



1IO0LE ORDINATE IN lO FT= 05-^32 
■ 30- =4|t5V 



FiG. 223. 

SINGLE THKOW SPLIT SWITCH Xo. 6; RIGID FROG 6 FEET LONG* 




Fig. 224. 

SINGLE THROW SPLIT SWITCH No. 7; RIGID FROG 7 FEET LONG. 




Fig. 225. 

SINGLE THROW SPLIT SWITCH No. 7; RIGID FROG 12 FEET LONG. 
20 Vol. 13 



370 BUILDING AND BEFAIRINO BAILWAYS. 

and rigid frogs, while Figs. 231 to 234 are for the 
same style of switch but with a spring rail frog. 
Plans with details for the location of the crotch 
or center frogs and their number for three throw 
split switches are given in Figs. 235 to 242. 

A number ten frog is probably more often used 
in the main line than any other, for the reason 
that a very good (though not a mathematically 
correct) switch can be obtained by using two 
thirty foot rails between the switch point and 
the frog, and thus avoiding cutting rails. In 
Appendix J, Table ISTo. 9, is given a list of switch 
ties for single throw split switches, using frog 
Nos. 4 to 11 inclusive. Table No. 10, Appendix 
J, gives a list of switch ties for three throw split 
switches using frogs, Nos. 6 to 11 inclusive. Stub 
switches are used to some extent at present on 
branches and in yards. The names of the parts of 
a stub switch are given in Fig. 243 and in Appen- 
dix J, Table No. 11, is given the data to lay out 
a single and a three throw switch for a standard 
gauge. Table No. 12, Appendix J, gives the data 
for laying out a single and three throw switch for 
a narrow (three foot) gauge. A bill of switch ties 
for standard gauge single throw stub switches is 
given in Table No. 13, Appendix J, while Table 
No. 14 gives a bill of switch ties for a narrow 
(three foot) gauge, single throw stub switch. The 
tables and data so far given are for switches in a 
straight track. Where the main line is curved, 
special calculations are required for each case, 
and the solutions of such problems are given in 
the work previously referred to. 



CONSTRUCTING TRACK. 



371 




Fig. 226. 

SINGLE THROW SPLIT SWITCH No. 8; RIGID FROG 8 FEET LONG. 




Fig. 227. 

SINGLE THROW SPLIT SWITCH No. 9; RIGID FROG 9 FEET LONG. 




Fig. 228. 

SINGLE THROW SPLIT SWITCH No. 9; RIGID FROG 12 FEET LONG. 



372 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

Crossovers are necessary on doable track rail- 
roads to enable Avest or north bound trains to 
reach sidings on south or east bound tracks and 
vice versa. Fig. 244 illustrates a crossover and 
its use. Fig. 245 is a plan of a crossover. The 
length of the leads are given in Figs. 223 to 
230 and the distance D between the points of the 
frogs in the main line track is given in Table 15, 
Appendix J. A rule often used by track men to 
calculate the distance between the points of frogs 
at crossovers is as follows: From the distance 
between the gauge lines of parallel tracks, sub- 
tract the gauge of the track, multiply the re- 
mainder by the number of the frog, and the 
result will be the distance between the points of 
the frogs. Care should be taken to place cross- 
overs so that trains will run through the switches 
as shown in Fig. 244 and not against the point of 
the switch; this reduces the liability of accidents 
from derailment. Derailing switches should be 
placed on all side tracks where the grade is such 
that cars are liable to run onto the main line. 
The safest construction is to place derailing 
switches at all sidings connected with the main 
line; high winds will cause light box cars to 
move on a side track, or careless switching when 
a fast train is due has occasioned freight cars to 
run into a switch and caused accidents. Fig. 246 
illustrates a derailing switch operated from the 
switch stand which operates the main line switch; 
when the switch is set for the main track the de- 
railing switch is set to throw a moving car off the 
siding on the opposite side from the main line 
track. 



CONSTRUCTING TRACK, 



373 




Fig. 229. 
single throw split switch no. 10; rigid frog 10 feet long. 



?ff I SIN&LE THROW. 

t ill 

.lip '^'o-- 



SWITCH ANGLC IMO' -, 






si> 



CLOSURE 65'3^' 

MIDDLE ORDINATE IN 10 FT-oiScQfjt- 



Fig. 230. 

single throw split switch xo. 11; rigid frog 11 feet long. 




Fig. 231. 



single THROW SPLIT SWITCH No. 7; SPRING RAIL FROG 15 FEET 

LONG. 



374 BUILDING AND REPAIHING RAILWAYS, 



i,< ^* 







•vhOOlE OADinaTE: in iOFT* 0:t>ii 
' JO- • E^" 



F 



Fig. 232. 



SINGLE THROW SPLIT SWITCH No. 8^; SPRING RAIL FROG 15 

FEET LONG. 




Fig. 233. 



SINGLE THROW SPLIT SWITCH No. 9; SPRING RAIL FROG 15 
FEET LONG. 






p 






Fig. 234. 



SINGLE THROW SPLIT SWITCH No. 10; SPRING RAIL FROG 15 
FEET LONG, 



CONSTRUCTING TRACK, 



375 




Fig. 235. 



THREE THROW SPLIT SWITCH No. 6; RIGID FROG 6 FEET 
LONG. 



t-.'^"Ts-.^'<^- -■•> 




Fig. 236. 



THREE THROW SPLIT SWITCH WITH No. 7; RIGID FROG 7 FEET 

LONG. 




Fig. 237. 



THREE THROW SPLIT SWITCH WITH No. T; RIGJD FROQ J? FEET 

LONG. 



376 BUILDING ^IND HE PAIRING RAILWAYS. 



' ^-IVo.--- -J 



~rr- 




Fig. 238. 



THREE THROW SPLIT SWITCH WITH No. 8; RIGID PROG 8 FEET 

LONG. 




Fig. 239. 



THREE THROW SPLIT SWITCH WITH No. 9; RIGID FROG 9 FEET 

LONG. 







Fig. 240. 

THREE THROW SPLIT SWITCH WITH No. 9; RIGID FROG H FEET 

LONG. 



CONSTRUCTING TRACK, 



377 




■=<,=:::j;^^ — as' Qjr — >( 



FiG. 241. 



THREE THROW SPLIT SWITCH WITH No. 10; RIGID FROG 10 FEET 

LONG. 




,2<rj. 55. 



Fig. 242. 



THREE THROW SPLIT SWITCH WITH No. 11; RIGID FROG 11 FEET 

LONG. 




Fig. 243. 

PLAN OF A STUB SWITCH. 

A — Switch rail. B — Toe of switch to point of frog. C = A + B = Heel 
of switch rail to point of frog. D= Toe of switch to point of crotch frog. 
E = Throw of switch. 



378 



BUILDING AND REPAIBING RAILWAYS 



There has recently been introduced sand tracks, 
similar to that illustrated in Fig. 247 for check- 
ing the movement of cars on side tracks and also 
to take the place of bumping posts. A derailing 




Fig. 244. 



PLAN ILLUSTRATING THE USE OF A CROSS OVER OR SWITCH 

CONNECTING THE TWO MAIN LINE TRACKS OF A DOUBLE 

TRACK ROAD. C IS THE CROSS OVER CONNECTING 

TRACKS A AND B TO ENABLE A TRAIN ON 

TRACK A TO REACH SIDING D. 




Fig. 245. 

PLAN OF A CROSS OVER. 



switch used in connection with an interlocking 
plant to protect railroad crossings is illustrated 
by Fig. 248. 

Guard rails should be placed at all frogs, both 
at the main line rail and the rail leading to the 
siding. They should be securely spiked to the 



CONSTRUCTING TRACK 




Fig. 246. 



DERAILING SWITCH USED TO PREVENT COLLISION BETWEEN 

A TRAIN ON THE MAIN LINE AND CARS RUNNING OFF 

A SIDE TRACK ONTO THE MAIN LINE. 

This switch is connected and operated by the movement of the Main Line 
Switch. The cut shows the switch set for the Main Line and the Derailing 
Switch set to throw a car moving out of the siding from the track. When 
the switch is set for Siding the Derailing Switch closes automatically. 




Fig. 247. 



SAND TRACK; USED TO CHECK THE MOVEMENT OF Ci^JlS ON A 
GRADE OR WHEN PROPELLED BY A HIGH WIND FROM RUN- 
NING OFF A SIDING TO THE MAIN LINE TRACK. 



1 rin 






















n [ 


1 r 


1 r 


1 r 












WX 


^ - 


L. 
1 — 






1 


1 


- 


■ 





(£ 



1 1 lii o) 



ocTAiL or »rAO wxx 



:°) 



OCTM. or KU OIMM CUI 



Fig. 248. 

DERAILING SWITCH POINT USED IN CONNECTION WITH INTER 
LOCKING SYSTEM OF GUARD CROSSINGS. 



380 BUILDING AND RE PAIRING RAILWAFS. 

tie and braced so they cannot turn over. Fig. 249 
illustrates a guard rail braced with rail braces; 
Figs. 248 to 251 illustrate methods of stiffening 
guard rails by attaching them to the main line 
rail. 

In addition to what has already been said in 
regard to crossing frogs, it is well to note here 
that it sometimes occurs that two roads cross at 
an acute angle; in such cases the crossing can be 
made by using crossing frogs as shown in Fig. 
252. Crossings of this character are liable to 
occur at yards and terminal points. To secure 
a smooth main line track, movable center points 
instead of a rigid frog have been introduced. 
Fig. 253 illustrates a combination slip switch 
crossing with movable center points, the switch 
points and movable frog points are operated to- 
gether. The motions are positive, the frog points 
always corresponding with the switch points, thus 
avoiding any mistake on the part of the switch- 
man. This combination of switches and frog 
points is desirable where the crossing is at an 
angle of less than ten degrees. 

The question of widening the gauge on curves 
has been discussed ever since railroads were first 
constructed, and no conclusion has yet been ar- 
rived at. The Roadmasters' Association made 
enquiries on this subject in 1897, and found no 
two railroad systems were using the same width 
of gauge for curves of the same degree, and some 
roads laid track on both curves and tangents to 
the same gauge. The present practice of gaug- 
ing wheels for standard gauge cars leaves a clear- 



CORSTRiX'TIXG TRACK, 



3S1 



o 

< 

PQ 



6 



< 

Q 
O 

n 
p 

I/} 

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o 

M 

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t-i 

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P 

O 

P 

<«i 
p 

e3 

(0 



38i 



BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 



ance of five-eighths to seven-eighths of an men on 
a four feet eight and one-half inch gauge on a 
tangent. In 1898 the Roadmasters' Association 
recommended commencing to widen the gauge 
on curves with a seven degree curve. Table 
No. 16, Appendix J, gives the amount recom- 
mended by this Association for widening the 
gauge for different degrees of curvature. 




SCCTiDN CD. 



Fig. 250. 

GUARD RAIL WITH THE HOOK GUARD RAIL CLAMP. 




y y u)*fy I 




Fig. 251. 

GUARD RAIL WITH THE SAMPSON ADJUSTABLE GUARD RAIL 

CLAMP. 

Elevating the outer rails on curves is done to 
counterbalance the centrifugal force or that force 
which tends to cause the train to mount the rail 
and proceed in a tangent or straight line. The 
proper theoretical velocity can readily be cal- 
culated when the radius of the curve and the 
velocity of the train are known using the formula 
E = 3-f^p^ in which E equals the elevation of the 
outer rail, G the gauge in feet, V the velocity of 



384 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

the train in feet per second, and E the radius of 
the curve in feet. In practice, however, the 
problem is a difficult one to solve, and with 
mixed trains running on the same track, prob- 
ably never will be. The difficulty lies in the 
fact that other conditions besides keeping the 
train on the track have to be taken into account. 
Steel rails are expensive, and it is also expensive 
work to take worn ones out of the track and re- 
place them with new ones. To get the full life 
of the rails on a curve, the wheels of the rolling 
stock (that is the cars and locomotives) should 
pass around a curve in the same manner they do 
on a tangent. When the outer rail on curves is 
elevated to give safe and easy riding track for 
fast passenger trains, the slower passenger trains 
and freight trains are bearing heavily on the 
inner rail, and wearing it out faster than the 
outer rail. On a single track road the problem 
is further complicated where there is a curve on 
a grade; descending trains pass over the curve at 
a high speed while ascending ones pass over it 
at a low speed especially where the grade is a 
heavy one. Table No. 17, Appendix J, gives the 
theoretical elevation of the outer rail on curves 
of different degree or radius, and for trains at 
different velocity for both standard and narrow 
gauge. In practice no standard gauge track 
should be given more than 6i inches eleva- 
tion, and on single track such elevation should be 
made as will most nearly conform to all speeds 
but favoring passenger trains.^ Table No. 18, 

♦Further information on this subject will be f^und in the first 
article in Appendix J. 



CONSTRUCTING TRACK. 3S5 

Appendix J, gives the ordinates for bending rails 
of different lengths to curves of different radius 
for track and switch constructions. The chapter 
on Maintenance of Way will contain some data 
w^hich, while properly being a part of track con- 
struction, also is a part of the work coming 
under the supervision of the Roadmaster and his 
employes. There also was discussed in the chap- 
ter on Standards some subjects belonging to 
track. In Appendix J will be found further de- 
tailed information as to the minutiae of track. 



2< Voi. 13 



CHAPTER VITT. 

MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 

All the steps leading up to the building ana 
complete construction of a railroad have now 
been described, and we may suppose that the 
property is performing its functions, and that 
trains hauling passengers and freight are daily 
passing over its tracks. But after a railroad 
has been completed in as thorough and econom- 
ical a manner as the resources of the man- 
agement will permit and it is turned over to 
the operating department, experience shows that 
over 23 per cent, of all the expense of operating 
the road is required for maintaining the track, 
bridges, culverts, buildings, fences, gates and 
crossings, and over 15 per cent, for maintaining 
the equipment in good order so that operations 
may be continued with economy and safety."^ 

The problem of maintenance of track is con- 
stantly becoming more and more difficult by rea- 
son of the increased weight of rolling stock and 
the heavier loads hauled. f 

* Appendix G, Table 1, gives a tabulated statement of the 
weights of the largest locomotives in 1880 and 1890. Passenger 
locomotives in the past twenty years have increased 65 to 70 per 
cent, in weight, while freight locomotives have increased over 
100 per cent. 

t Appendices B, C, and D give further information on this 
point. 

(886) 



MAINTENANCE OF WAT, 387 

This increase in weight was started by the dis- 
cussion on the relative merits of standard and 
narrow gauge from 1870 to 1883, and has been 
helped along by the effort to cheapen the cost of 
handling the freight traffic by increasing the 
tonnage hauled by a locomotive and train crew. 

In 1880 it was thought that 12,000 pounds was 
all that could be put on a driver without crush- 
ing the rail; to-day there are several locomotives 
whose drivers support a weight of over 24,000 
pounds. To meet this condition, steel rails have 
been increased in weight from 60 to 100 pounds 
per yard. The effect of this heavy rail is to 
make it act as a girder, thus throwing the weight 
carried on a larger number of ties. 

The increased bearing surface secured by the 
use of wide ties is shown by the table No. 19, 
Appendix J, which shows that 16 ties having an 
eight-inch face, or 14 ties having a nine-inch 
face, have^as large a bearing surface on the bal- 
last as 18 ties having a seven-inch face. 

The following table gives the number of ties 
which can be placed under a thirty-foot rail, 
leaving ten inches in the clear for tamping, and 
also the percentage of increased bearing surface 
for ties 8, 9, and 10 inches wide over ties 7 inches 
wide. 



Width of tie. 


No. to a 
30-ft. rail. 


Percentage of increased 
bearing surface on the b 1« 
last over a tie 7 inches wide. 


7 inches 


21 




8 - 


20 


9 per cent. 


9 - 


19 


I6i 


10 ** 


18 


22i ** 



:^S8 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 

To support the new class of heavy h:)Comotives 
and tonnage trains with loaded cars weighing 
90,000 to 100,000 pounds, wider ties must be 
used on well ballasted and drained roadbeds. 
By increasing the thickness of the tie to seven 
inches it can be made eight feet six inches long, 
and thus secure additional bearing surface; ties 
nine and ten feet long have been used on earth 
ballast where there are seasons of prolonged 
rainfall. 

In addition to the destructive force exerted by 
passing trains, there are other causes tending to 
destroy the track, viz.: wet cuts and badly 
drained roadbeds, creeping of the rails, heaving 
and settling of the roadbed by freezing and 
thawing, natural decay of the ties and corrosion 
of the rails and fastenings caused by the ele- 
ments.*^ 

Organization of Force. — The organization of 
the force in charge of the important duty of 
maintaining the track of a railway, which, as we 
have seen, costs almost 25 per cent, of the oper- 

*I remember going over a piece of road in the eastern part <y 
Dakota in 1874 that had been abandoned for some time. Thi 
train consisted of an engine and two cars, and three days were 
required to travel eighty miles. The weeds and grass were 
from 6 inches to six feet in height. Everywhere the roadbed 
was tunneled with the burrows of jack rabbits and squirrels. 
The weeds and grass renderea the track so slippery that it was 
necessary for laborers to place sand and gravel on the rails as wr 
proceeded. Water was procured with the aid of syphons from 
ponds along the road and the trestles and bridges swayed under 
the weight of the train like trees in a tempest. When eventually 
this particular piece of track was opened for business, it was 
found necessary to rebuild it entirely, although the aband:>n- 
ment had only extended over a period of five years. 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. SS9 

ating expense, and upon which force depends 
\ery largely the financial success of the railroad, 
has not, as a rule, received the attention its im- 
portance demands. 

On some systems the maintenance of way de- 
department is directly under the engineer, in 
other cases directly under the superintendent, 
and in other cases there is a division of author- 
ity. The roadniasters, who are the officials in 
actual charge of the track, in some cases report 
direct or through the engineer to the superin- 
tendent, and in other cases report to an officer 
who in turn reports to the engineer. 

The tendency is to place men in charge of 
naintenance of way who have had a technical 
training; but before they can be of any great 
service they must also have received a practical 
training. All men who graduate from a tech- 
nical school or college do not possess that prac- 
tical turn of mind essential to the successful 
engineer. 

Some railroad systems place the young engi- 
neers in section gangs where they can learn the 
practical work and are then advanced to section 
foremen, supervisors of several gangs of section 
men, and then to roadmasters; this method se- 
cures men who have both practical and scientific 
knowledge and who have proved their adapta- 
bility to the work and ability to manage men. 
There are two distinct features to be considered 
in the organization of the roadway department. 
The first is the execution of that which is to be 
done; the next, the inspection of that which has 



390 BUILDING AND REP AIMING RAILWAYS. 

been done. Under some circumstances, the 
duties of execution and inspection are combined 
in one individual; in the broadest sense, how- 
ever, there should be no community of interests 
between the inspector and the man who is di- 
rectly responsible for the work. The man who 
executes or directs the execution of work is nat- 
urally inclined to magnify its excellence and ex- 
cuse its imperfections, but he who views it with 
the practiced eye of a critic, whose judgment is 
not tempered with self-interest, will give an esti- 
mate of certain and just value. Road inspection 
will therefore be considered under a separate 
heading, as a distinct system, instituted to meet 
the increasing exaction of modern railroading. 

In the organization of the roadway service 
there should be no division of authority or re- 
sponsibility; all orders should proceed from a 
responsible head, and all reports should ulti 
mately reach his office and be consolidated by 
him for the information of superior officers. 
This head is variously termed the roadmaster, 
superintendent of roadway, engineer, etc. Un- 
der this officer come the supervisors, division 
roadmasters, or assistant engineers, as the case 
may be; also timber inspectors, pump inspec- 
tors, and frequently bridge and building inspec- 
tors; then come the gang foremen, etc., who 
in turn employ their own laborers. Under 
such an organization, with a proper system of 
rules and accounts, a road may be extended to 
almost unlimited proportions by a simple addi- 
tion to the number of divisions and subdivisions. 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 391 

and ai] enlargement of the central office. A di- 
vision roadmaster or supervisor is rarely capable 
of supervising more than one hundred miles of 
single track or fifty miles of double track road. 
On our more important lines, a section of single 
track should not exceed six miles, and section- 
houses should be placed as near a telegraph 
office or station as possible. 

The foreman should have the care of track 
and property of the company on his section, and 
should be held accountable for their proper care 
and maintenance. 

As far as possible the roadmaster should lay 
out the work for his foremen. Foremen should 
be shown the value of thorough system, of plan- 
ning the week's work ahead so as to economize 
time and to accomplish a little more than the 
proper week's allowance. For this reason it is 
very essential for the roadmaster to establish the 
proper allowance of labor, and to issue a little in 
* advance of requirements the necessary material. 
Foremen should not be permitted to work por- 
tions of a day at points widely separated, as the 
loss of time in going from one place to another 
will easily consume a large percentage of the 
day's time. The regular inspection, which fore- 
men should be required to make at least twice a 
week over every part of their sections, should be 
made in such a manner that they will use as 
little time away from their regular work as 
possible. 

The following rules for the guidance of em- 
ployes in the roadway department are in the 
main generally appropriate.^ 

* I copy them substantially as I find them^ 



39i> BUILDING AND HE PAIRING RAILWAYS. 

General Rules. — Each employe whose duties 
require it must have the book of rules with him 
while on duty. 

Any employe who does not clearly understand 
the rules must ask an explanation of his superior 
officer. 

Employes must report violations of rules by 
other employes which endanger life or property, 
or which prevent them from discharging their 
own duty. 

Employes while on duty must refrain from 
profane or violent language, personal altercation, 
and from using intoxicating drinks. 

Each employe is hereby warned that while on 
the tracks or grounds of the company, or in work- 
ing with or being in any manner on or with its 
cars, engines, machinery or tools, he must ex- 
amine, for his own safety, the condition of all 
machinery, tools, tracks, cars, engines, or what- 
ever he may undertake to work on or with, be- 
fore he makes use of or exposes himself on or 
with the same, so as to ascertain, so far as he 
reasonably can, their condition and soundness; 
and he is required promptly to report to his 
superior officer any defect in any track, machin- 
ery, tools or property of said company affecting 
the safety of anyone in operating upon or with 
the same. 

Supervisors, inspectors, foremen and conduc- 
tors must keep a daily record of their occupation, 
showing in detail the work done, material used, 
and the time of each person employed under their 
immediate supervision. 

Red must not be worn in a conspicuous man- 
ner. 

Supervisors, conductors, section foremen and 
foremen of all other gangs, during work hours. 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY, 893 

must not leave their respective division, train, 
section or gang, without written permission from 
the roadmaster. 

In case of accident to train or road, the highest 
officer in the roadway department, or the oldest 
foreman in continuous service present at the 
time will have charge of the work until relieved 
by some one higher in authority. 

Supervisors must pass over their divisions on 
trains, and foremen over their sections on hand 
cars, during stormy weather, and must know that 
all is safe before allowing trains to pass. Con- 
ductors must keep in telegraphic communication 
with the roadmaster and the master of trains 
during the continuance of storms, and be pre- 
pared tt) move on shortest notice. 

Hand cars must not be towed at the rear of 
trains, and must not be on the track after dark, 
nor in foggy weather unless protected by proper 
signals in front and rear. 

Standard plans and specifications for the con- 
struction and location of all structures will be 
furnished and officers and foremen must inform 
themselves of such standards and work entirely 
in conformity with them. 

Trains must be expected at all times. 

Foremen and officers must provide themselves 
with reliable watches before entering upon their 
duties,. and see that they are always in order and 
conform to standard time. 

When watchmen are left with danger signals, 
they .must be supplied with tools and required to 
work. 

When dangerous places are found, or while 
work is being done that renders the road unsafe 
for the passage of trains, the person in charge 



394 BUILDING AND RE PAIRING RAILWAYS, 

must attend to the placing and maintaining of 
danger signals on the engineer's side of track in 
both directions. In no case must they be nearer 
than fifteen telegraph poles, and on a continuous 
down grade in the direction of the work the sig- 
nal must be placed at least twenty telegraph 
poles from the work. When such points come 
on a curve, the signal must be placed at the fur- 
ther end of the curve. If either signal cannot 
be clearly seen from the work and from an ap- 
proaching train, a watchman must be left with 
it. 

Whenever signals of the roadway department 
are disregarded, immediate report must be made 
to the roadmaster. 

Slow boards must be posted at a distance of 
ten telegraph poles on each side of the place 
where the speed is to be reduced. 

When two or more hand cars may be following 
each other over the road, they must maintain an 
interval of at least two telegraph poles apart. 

Supervisors or Assistant Roadmaster s : Must 
test track levels once a week, and see that they 
are used in surfacing track; must see that fore- 
men are supplied with the full number of tools 
required; and that they are in proper order; must 
carry with them on their hand car a standard 
track gauge, an ax, six torpedoes, a red and white 
lantern, and a red flag; must examine switches, 
frogs and turntables once a week, and see that 
they are in proper order; must see that turn- 
tables and car guards are provided with proper 
means to securely lock them; must see that their 
foremen are provided with the proper forms for 
making reports, and with copies of all rules and 
schedules; must pass over their respective diyis- 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 395 

ions at least once a week on a hand car, once a 
week on an engine, and as often as possible on 
the rear of a train; must see that signs are placed 
where required, and are kept in proper order; 
must see that fences are kept in proper order. 

Reports of the resignation, discharge, removal, 
suspension, transfer, death, injury, sickness, or 
marriage of any foreman must be sent at once 
to the roadmaster. 

Foremen: Must be familiar with the regular 
code of signals and the proper position and use of 
torpedoes; must work when their entire attention 
is not required in directing their men; must report 
promptly in detail to the super^^Lsor any accidents 
to persons or trains; must notice the signals 
carried by passing engines; must examine every 
switch, frog and guard rail on their respective 
sections at least three times every week, and keep 
them in good order. 

The length of a section and the number of men 
allotted to each gang should be governed by local 
conditions, whether single or double track and 
the volume of traffic. A section of double track 
should be about four miles long, and of single 
track about six miles long. On roads having a 
large traffic, each section gang should consist of 
a foreman and one and one-half men per mile 
of double track, with an additional allowance of 
one man for every two miles of sidings. On 
single track each gang should consist of a fore- 
man and one man per mile of track, with an 
additional allowance of one man for every two 
miles of sidings. Taking these proportions as a 
basis, sections may be varied in length as locality 
and circumstances make necessary. Generally 
speaking no section should be so reduced in 



396 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

length that its proportionate allowance of force 
would be less than six men and a foreman. 
Watchmen should be counted extra. All extra 
work should be calculated to be done by a special 
gang and ballast train; or extra men should be 
allowed section foremen. Each section should 
have a tool house large enough to accommodate 
a hand car and a full complement of tools. 

Ballasting. Ballasting when done on a large 
scale, as is the case when changing from an earth 
roadbed to one of gravel, slag or broken stone, is 
done by special gangs, and when repairs to the 
ballast are done on a small scale the work is done 
by the section gang. 

Tracks should be laid alongside of a gravel 
bank of sufficient capacity to allow switching a 
train of empty cars alongside the steam shovel, 
while the loaded ones are being taken out, the 
object in view being to proportion the forces so 
that all can work steadily and have no interrup- 
tions caused by the steam shovel being idle wait- 
ing for empty cars, or the gang placing the bal- 
last under the ties being idle waiting for ballast. 
By using a steam shovel to load the cars with 
gravel, and a ballast unloader the force on the 
gravel train can be reduced to a small train crew. 

Wherever a change is being made from an 
earth roadbed to one ballasted with gravel, slag 
or stone, the earth between and at the ends of 
the ties should be cast out on to the slopes of the 
embankments and removed entirely from cuts and 
placed where the embankments are narrow; the 
aim should be to secure ?. roadbed as near the 
standard section as possible before the ballast is- 
put on. 



MAiyiENAJ^CE OF WAT. 397 

There have recently been introduced special 
cars for handling ballast. Thus the Rodgers ballast 
car dumps the ballast in the center of the track, 
the last car in train of ballast cars having a plow 
for cleaning and flanging the track. The amount 
of ballast to be distributed is regulated by the 
amount of opening given to the doors of the hop- 
per in the bottom of the ballast car and the speed 
of the train. When a large amount of ballast is 
to be deposited, it is done by running the ballast 
train over the track two or more times. 

A nother car for handling ballast is the Good- 
win Steel Gravity Dump Car. It is dumped by 
one man by means of compressed air which 
operates to move the dumping attachments of all 
the cars in the train at the same time. The bal- 
last can be dumped all on one side of a rail or 
both sides, or all on the outside of both rails or 
all on the inside of both rails. 

When the ballast, used is broken slag or stone, 
care should be taken to have a sufficient supply 
to draw from before putting the surfacing gang 
at work. It is advisable in case of any class of 
ballast to have a sufficient quantity distributed 
along the track before the surfacing gang is put 
to work in order to guard against delays in 
delivery. 

A plant is required to prepare stone ballast 
which should be located at a quarry,* storage bins 
should be provided of capacity sufficient to load at 
the least a train of cars; it is still more economical, 
however, to have the capacity of the plant such 
that when the cars are put in service they can be 
kept continuously employed until the work is 
completed. 



398 BUILDING AND BE P AIMING RAILWAYS. 




Fig. 258. 



SECTIONAL PERSPECTIVE VIEW GATES STONE CRUSHER FOR 

BALLAST. 



REFERENCE TABLE. 



The names of the 
tion may be found in 

1. Bottom Plate. 

2. Bottom Shell. 

3. Top Shell. 

4. Bearing Cap. 

5. Oil Cellar Cap. 

6. Spider. 

7. Hopper. 

8. Ercentric. 

9. Bevel Wheel. 
20. Wearing Ring. 
11. Bevel Pinion. 



several parts designated by numbers in the above illustra- 
the following table: 



12. Band Wheel. 

13. Break Hub. 

14. Break Pin. 

15. Oil Bonnet. 

16. Dust Ring 

17. Dust Cap. 

18. Head. 

19. Concaves. 

22. Chilled Wearing 

Plates. 

24. Octagon Step. 



25. Main Shaft. 

26. Upper Ring Nut. 

27. Lower Ring Nut. 

28. Steel Step. 

29. Lighter Screw. 

30. Lighter Screw, Jam 

Nut. 

31. Counter Shaft. 
33. Oiling Chain. 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 399 

A large sized Gates stone crusher is illustrated 
by Fig. 258; this is of the rotary style which is 
taking the place of those having a jaw worked by 
a reciprocating motion. The drawing gives the 
details of the crusher and Fig. 259 shows the 




Fig. 259. 

GATES REVOLVING SCREEN FOR SCREENING CRUSHED STONE. 

rotary screen used to separate the crushed stone 
into the various sizes desired. 

A plant with storage bins and three loading 
tracks is shown by Fig. 260. To economically 
operate this plant the loading tracks should be on 
a light grade sufficient to easily move the loaded 
cars by hand; the empty cars should be placed at 
the high end of the siding and run under the 
storage bins by hand. After they are loaded they 
should be run by hand to the lower end of the 
loading tracks, thus avoiding the use of a switch 
engine. 

A portable railroad ballast plant is often usec^ 
where rubble stone can be obtained withoM 
quarrying as is often the case along rocky blufts 



400 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 



and hillsides. After the supply of rubble stone 
has been exhausted at one point the plant can 
be readily moved to another. 




Fig. 260. 

ARRANGEMENT OF STONE CRUSHER, ELEVATOR SCREEN AND 
STORAGE BINS FOR A RAILROAD BALLAST PLANT. 

Placing the ballast under the ties should be 
done by lifting the track six inches at a time by 
two track jacks, one at each rail and opposite 
each other. If the lift is more than six inches at 
a time, the joints and fastenings are liable to be 
injured. Fig. 262 illustrates a Jenne track jack 
and Fig. 263 illustrates the trip jack — both styles 
are made with long, narrow bases, so they can be 
placed between the ties. 



MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 



401 




Fig. 262. 

JENNE TRACK JACK FOR HEAVY BALLASTING, SURFACING AND 
GENERAL TRACK REPAIRS. 




Fig. 263. 

x'RIP JACK FOR ballasting, SURFACING AND GENERAL TRaCK 

repairs. 
22 Vol. 13 



402 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

Tools. The following list of tools for a section 
gang of six men is made from a list of tools used 
by roads in the Eastern, Central and Western 
States. 



Name of Tools. 



Number 


Illustrated by 


Required. 


Figure Nos. 


2 


264 


3 




1 


265 


1 




1 


266 


2 


267 


1 


268 


1 




4 


269 


6 


270 


1 


271 


1 


272 


1 


273 


6 


274 


3 


275 


1 




1 


276-277 


2 


278 


4 




2 




2 




1 


279 


1 


280 


1 


281 


1 


282 


2 


283 


2 


283 


2 


283 


4 


284 




285 




286 




287 








288 


6 


289 


4 




6 


290 


4 




2 





Adzes 

*' handles 

Axes 

** handles 

Auger for post holes 

Brooms 

*Brush hooks 

* '' *' handles 

*Ballast hammers 

* '* forks 

*Brace and bits 

Cars, hand 

*' push 

Chisels, track 

Claw bars 

Ditch line 100 feet long 

Drills, ratchet or track drills, 

Files 

Flags, red 

" green 

'* white 

Grindstone 

*^Hoes, grub or mattocks 

Hatchets or hand axes 

♦Hammer, hand, for nails 

Lanterns, red . 

" green 

** white 

Lining bars, wedge point 

Oil can 

Oiler 

Punches , 

Pinch bars , 

Padlock and chain 

Picks, earth 

" " handles 

* " tamping 

" " handles 

Rakes 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY 



403 



Name of Tools. 



Rail tongs 

' ' forks 

Saws, hand 

* ** cross cut 

Scythes 

" snaths, 

* * stones 

*Spirit level 

^Square, tie 

*Spike puller 

" mauls. 

" ** handles, 

*Sledges 

*' handles 

Shovels 

" scoop 

" long handled 

*Track lever or lifting bar 

" jacks . 

' ' gauges 

' ' level board 

*Tamping bars 

Torpedoes 

Tape line 50 feet long 

*Tool boxes 

Wire stretchers 

Wrenches, track 

monkey 

*Wheel barrows 

Water bucket 

** dipper 

keg 

Spike'hole plugs [ ^^i^hed as required 



Number 
Required. 



3 
2 

1 
1 
4 
4 
2 
1 
1 
1 
4 
4 
2 
2 
6 
6 
1 
1 
2 
2 
1 
4 
12 
1 
1 
1 
4 
1 
3 
1 
1 
1 



Illustrated by 
Figure Nos. 



291 
292 
293 
294 
295 
296 

297 

298 
299 

300 

301 

302 

303 

304 
262-263 
305-306 

307 

308 

309 

310 

311 
312 
313 



The tools marked with an ^ are not required 
by all section gangs; a brush hook and grub hoe 
will be needed in a timbered country but not in 
a prairie section of the country; ballast or nap- 
ping hammers and sledges will be needed where 
the country is rocky and ballast is often made of 
the rocks found along the right of way, but will 



404 BUILDING AND HEP AIMING HAILWATS, 



not be required where the country is barren of 
stone. 




Fig. 264. 

ADZE. 




Fig. 265. 

CHOPPING AXE. 




Fig. 266. 






Fig. 267. 



AUGER FOR BORING HOLES IN BROOM FOR REMOVING SNOW 



THE GROUND TO PLACE 
FENCE POSTS IN. 



FROM SWITCHES, 
FROGS, ETC 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY, 



405 




Fig. 268. 



BRUSH HOOK FOR CUTTING 
DOWN SMALL SAPLINGS. 





Fig. 269. 



Fig. 270. 



BALLAST OR NAPPING HAM- 
MER TO BREAK MEDIUM 
SIZED STONE TO PROPER 
SIZE FOR BALLAST; 
WEIGHT ABOUT FOUR 
POUNDS. 



BALLAST FORK FOR HAND- 
LING SLAG OR STONE BAL- 
LAST, SO THAT THE FINE 
DIRT WILL NOT BE 
SHOVELED WITH 
BALLAST. 




B. 



Fig. 271. 



BRACE A AND BIT B FOR BORING HOLES IN TIES WHERE SPIKES 

HAVE BEEN DRAWN PREPARATORY TO PLUGGING 

THE SPIKE HOLE. 



400 BUILDING ANp REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 




I 



Fig. 272. 

HAND CAR FOR SECTION GANG. 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 



407 




CO 

6 



Q 

< 
O 

P 

P' 
^. 

<< 

P 



&:3 
o 



o 



408 BUILDING ^iND RE POURING EjULWAYS. 




Fig. 274. 

TRACK CHISEL FOR CUTTING RAILS, ETC. 




Fig. 275. 



CLAW BARS. A— HAVING NO HEEL. B— WITH A. HEEL. USED 
FOR PULLING SPIKES AND BOLTS. 




Fig. 276. 



PERFECTION TRACK DRILL FOR DRILLING BOLT HOLES IN 
RAILS. FEED AUTOMATIC OR HAND AS DESIRED. 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 



409 




Fio. 277. 



Q AND C SELF-FEEDING RAIL DRILL. OVER OR UNDER RAIL 
CLAMPS USED AS PREFERRED. 



Fig. 278. 

HAKD FILE FOR SMOOTHING THE ENDS OF RAILS BEFORE 
PLACING THEM IN THE TRACK, 



410 BUILDING AND BEP AIMING BAILWAYS, 





Fig. 279. 



HERCULES GRINDSTONE 
MOUNTED WITH TREADLE. 



Fig. 280. 

GRUB HOE. (A) FOR CUTTING THE 
ROOTS OF SMALL SAPLINGS. 

MATTOCK. (B) SOMETIMES PRE- 
FERRED TO A GRUB HOE. 

PICK MATTOCK. (C) SOMETIMES 
PREFERRED TO A GRUB HOE. 






Fig. 281. 

HATCHET. (A) WITH A CLAW FOR DRAWING NAILS. 

(B) WITH A NOTCH IN FACE FOR DRAWING NAILS. 
HAND AXE. (C) FOR LIGHT CHOPPING. 

Any of these can be used for the same purpose as a hand hammer. 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 



411 




Fig. 282. 



HAMMER FOR NAILING AND 
DRAWING NAILS. 




RAILROAD LANTERN. 

Tlie color of the light depends 

on the color of the glass 

globe used. 




c 



3 



Fig. 284. 

LINING BARS FOR THROWING TRACK WHKN LINING IT. 




Fig. 285. 

OIL CAN FOR CAR OIL. 




Fig. 286. 

SPRING OILER FOR OILING 
HAND PUSH CARS. 



412 



BUILDING AND RE PAIRING RAILWAYS. 




Fig. 287. 

TRACK OR RAIL. PUNCH. 




RAILROAD PADLOCK 
Used with a chain to lock hand or 
push cars by passing the chain 
through the two wheels on the same 
side of the car and fastening the 
chain by passing the padlock hasp 
through two links of the chain. 




Fig. 289. 

PICK FOR LOOSENING EARTH, CLAY OR HARD GRAVEL. 




Fig. 290. 



TAMPING PICK WITH ONE POINT ENLARGED FOR DRIVING THE 
BALLAST UNDER THE TIES; THIS IS USED FOR TAMP- 
ING STONE AND SLAG BALLAST. 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY, 



413 




^iG. 291. 



RAIL. TONGS FOR LIFTING RAILS. 

The head of the rail is gripped by the curved ends 

and the long bent ends serve as handles 

for the workmen to carry the rail. 




Fig. 293. 

HAND SAW. 

Used in repair- 
ing gates, lences 
inf3 i>the* iight 

Vo?l5 



Fig. 294. 

CROSS CUT 
SAW. 

Used in removing 
heavy drift from 
culverts and 
bridges and other 
heavy work. 



Fig. 292. 

RAIL FORK FOR TURNING 

RAILS. 
The slotted end is run over 
the base and the fork handle is 
used as a lever or the tapered 
end of the handle placed in the 
bolt hole and the slotted end is 
used as a iever to turn the rail. 





Fig. 295. 



SCYTHES. 

A. Light, for grass and weeds. 

B. Heavy, for bushes and small saplings. 




Fig. 296. 

SCYTHE SNATHS OR HANDLES. 



414 BUILDI^O AND IIEPAIEING RAILWAYS. 




Fig. 297. 

SPIRIT LEVEL FOR DETERMINING THE TRUE HORIZONTAL OR 
PERPENDICULAR. 





Fig. 298 



A. 



C. 



SPIKE PULLERS. 
Cant hook or centennial bar, works on the same principle as a cant hook 
is used 10 turn a piece of timber. 

Shackle Bar— This uses the rail as a fulcrum and aims to pull the spike 
without bending ir. The common claw bar is mostly used for pulling 
spikes. See Fi?. 274. 

Is an attachment which can be used with a claw bar, etc. Will draw 
spikes from between contiguous rails, guard rails, switches, frogs, and 
at platforms; can also be used on bridges and in tunnels and cuts; can be 
attached to any claw bar, and will bend the spike less than when pulled 
in the usual way. Is made of tempered steel, and is light, strong, dura- 
ble and cheap. 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY, 



415 





Fig. 299. 



Fig. 300. 



SPIKE MAUL. 
For driving spikes into the ties. 





STONE SLEDGE HAMMER. 

Used to break boulders or rocki 

sliding into cuts and other 

work of this class. 



Fig. 301. 



RAILROAD SHOVEL. 

For tamping earth, sand 

and some varieties of 

gravel ballast and 

for ditching, etc. 



Fig. 302. 

SCOOP SHOVEL. 

For handling gravel, cinders, 

snow or other light material 

or very soft wet earth 

which will run off 

an ordinary 

shovel. 




Fig. 304. 



tryxCk lever or lifting bar, used for 
heavy track work.' 



Fig. 303. 

LONG HANDLED 

SHOVEL. 

For digging deep trenches 

or deep holes as for 

telegraph poles. 




Fig. 305. 



HUNTINGTON S TRACK GAUGE. 

Cac also be used to square ties with the rail, though there are roads having 

a special tool for squaring the ties with the rail. 



-iU ]3UILDi:SG AKB EEPAIRIISQ RAILWAYS. 




Fig. 

Mchenry track gauge. 

It is similar to the Huntington Gauge shown in Fig. 305, the special fea- 
ture being the arrangement for accurately gauging curves which is now left 
almost entirely to guess work. Five steel shims, each ^-inch thick (shown 
in enlarged end cut) each representing three degrees of curvature, provide 
for properly gauging curves up to 15 degrees. For straight track the shims 
are pushed up out of the way. The change is easily and quickly made. 





Fig. 307. 



A-COMMON TRACK LEVEL. 

B— DUPLEX TRACK LEVEL. Contains two level glasses, one fixed in the 
board, the other attached to a movable indicator arm. By moving the 
indicator arm until the level glass attached to it comes true, it will 
show on the scale exactly how much out of level the track is. For 
use on curves it can be set at the proper elevation for the outside 
rail which can then be raised until the bubble indicates level position. 
It is convenient and accurate. This level can be arranged to serve 
also as a track gauge. 

C-MCHENRY INVOLUTE TRACK LEVEL. 

In this level, means for adjustment are provided and it can be used on 

dead level or for elevations up to six inches. The proper amount of 

elevation is secured by means of a steel plate fitted into a slot at one 

end of the level. This plate is curved in such a way as to raise the level 

from the rail to the full limit of six imhes while keeping the contact 

point with the rail at the same relative position. 

In addition to these styles, a board six inches wide, fifteen feet long, and 

one and one-half inches thick, having two spirit levels is used to test the 

levels across two tracks, to detect low joints before they are noticeable to 

the eye and to detect any vertical or horizontal bending of the rails. 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY, 



417 




I C 



I c 



TAMPING BAR USED TO TAMP ALL. CLASSES OF BALLAST 
EXCEPT SLAG AND STONE. 




Fig. 309. 

TORPEDO, 
Used to ^ive warning to an approaching train during foggy weather or at 
night that the track has been damaged or that there is some obstruction 
ahead; it contains an explosive which gives a loud noise when the engine 
passes over it, thus warning the engineer. 




Fig. 310. 

RAILROAD TOOL CHEST. 
Chest 6 feet long, 2 feet 2 inches broad, and 2 feet 4 inches high, of good 
heavy, seasoned pine lumber with hardwood handles on either side, cover of 
two thicknesses of matched plank running different ways with a strip of 
canvas between, making it water-tight; all has one coat of good metallic 
paint, and chest has hasp, staple, lock, etc., complete. The following list 
of tools for gang of— say 6 men is generally sent with the chest: 

1 Red Flag. 2 Tamping Bars. 1 Track Level 

1 Green Flag. 2 Lining Bars. 1 Rail Fork. 

1 White Lantern. 2 Spike Mauls. 1 Pair Track Tongs. 

1 Red Lantern. 6 Shovels. 3 Chisels. 

1 Adze. 2 Picks. 1 Oil Can. 

1 Claw Bar. 1 Track Gauge. 1 Water Pail. 

1 Axe. 1 Track Wrench. 1 Drioking Cup. 

The list of Tx)ols here given is largely used by the railways on the 
prairies of Illinois and adjoining states. 

23 Vol. 13 



418 BUILDING AND liEPAIEtNQ RAILWAYS. 



Fig. 311. 

TRACK WRENCH. 

Used to tighten the nuts at 
rail joints; the tapered end is 
used to insert in the bolt 
holes of the splices and rails to 
bring them into line for in- 
serting the bolt. 




Fig. 312. 

MONKEY WRENCH. 
This can be adjusted to fit nuts of different 




Fig. 313. 

RAILROAD BARROW. 

The policy of trying to provide every appli- 
ance to meet any and all emergencies is not wise; 
precaution against accident can be carried so far 
as to incur so great an expense that the road 
would be embarrassed financially. Some railway 
systems furnish each section gang only such tools 
as are necessary in actual work and a small stock 
of tools for emergency work is kept at the head- 
quarters of the roadmaster. 

The character of a workman may be deter- 
mined by his tools. If found in proper order and 
ready for any emergency, he may be classed as a 
first-class foreman. Good tools are necessary for 
good work. Foremen should be provided with 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 



419 



suitable boxes and racks for their tools and should 
not allow them to become mixed. 

There should be a systematic inspection of 
tools by the roadmaster. Every foreman should 
be required to have his full number of tools in 
efficient condition at all times. Spirit levels 
should be tested and adjusted at each inspection. 

Hand Cars. At stations where there are yards 
requiring a number of switch lights, section men 
on some roads are required to put them up and 
take them down. To facilitate this work cars 
especially designed are used ; Fig. 315 illustrates 




Fig. 315. 



FOUR-WHEELED ECLIPSE LIGHT WEIGHT CAR, WITH HEAD- 
LIGHT AND BOXES FOR LANTERNS AND TOOLS 
SUITABLE FOR TUNNEL USE. 



41^0 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

a car suitable for taking out a large number of 
switch lights; it is also equipped with ahead light 
and can be used for tunnel work. 

The roadmaster should be provided with a 
velocipede to enable him to get over his territory 
or to make a close inspection of special portions 
of it. Fig. 316 represents such a car — it can be 




Fig. 316. 

VELOCIPEDE CAR. 

carried on the platform of a baggage car or m 
the baggage car as desired. 

Drainage, Drainage is by far the most im- 
portant factor in maintaining a good track, water 
being its worst enemy; the duty of every section 
foreman is to lead it away from the roadbed. 
Time spent in perfecting the drainage will be re- 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 421 

paid by decreasing the labor required on other 
work.*^ 

The roadbed in cuts and on fills should be kept 
in such a condition that the water falling on it 
during rains or melting snow will run off at right 
angles and not run down the grade in gullies or 
depressions so that large quantities run off at one 
point, thus cutting away the embankment. 

Bolting. Bolting should be done by placing 
two bolts in each splice and tightening sufficiently 
to hold the rail to line; afterward the remaining 
bolts should be placed as soon as possible: the 
nuts will require tightening several times during 
the first sixty days on new track, but they should 
not be tightened with such force as to iujure the 
threads or grip the rail so tight as to prevent 
expansion. 

Spiking. Spiking should be done by driving 
the spike vertically to a true bearing against the 
rail base and driving should be stopped when the 
spike comes to a tight bearing on the rail or the 
head of the spike will be damaged.f 

Lining. Lining should be done to stakes set 
by the engineer. One rail should be lined up 
from the track centers, and the other rail lined 
by bringing it to the proper gauge with the line 
rail. Where track is badly out of line it should 
be thrown only part of the distance at one move- 
ment, shifting the entire length a foot or eighteen 

^This subject was discussed in the chapter on Construction 
and what was stated there applies with equal force to the main- 
tenance of way. 

tSee "Spiking" in first article of Appendix J. 



422 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

inches at a time and repeating this until it is 
brought approximately to line. When the line 
rail is brought to the exact line at one point the 
following procedure should be adopted: Set up a 
stake, rod or spirit level on end so one edge comes 
against the gauge side of the rail, then proceed 
to bring the line rail to line at another point some 
150 to 200 feet distant from this point to the 
first one, direct the section men which way to 
throw the track, throwing first the joints then 
the centers and quarters; when the track is 
brought close to line the foreman must put his 
eye close to the rail to detect bends which can- 
not be seen standing; after one section is lined 
take up another and so proceed through the entire 
work. To correct errors the sections should be 
lined from both ends. The outer rail on curves 
must be the line rail and the widening of gauge 
made with the inner rail. On curves the align- 
ment must be watched closely and in the absence 
of the engineers' center stakes the curvature 
should be tested by the rule given in table No. 
18, Appendix J. Gauging the track must be given 
careful attention.*^ Joints and centers should be 
gauged first and afterwards as many points as 
may be necessary to bring the rail into true gauge 
with the line rail; track gauges must be placed 
at right angles to the line rail and their accuracy 
must be tested by the roadmaster at least once 
during the season. Track on curves must be 
gauged frequently to keep it in gauge. 

*\n this connection the reader should note what is said in 
chapter on "Track" and in Aj^pendix J. Also Table No. 16, 
Appendix J. 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 423 

Surfacing. Surfacing must be done to stakes 
set by the engineer. When the work is being 
done in long stretches a straight edge or long 
track level must be placed on the tops of the 
stakes on each side of the track and the track 
raised by track jacks so that the rail touches 
the level. The ties at this point should then be 
thoroughly tamped. The same method of pro- 
cedure will be adopted at the next pair of engi- 
neers' stakes and so on. The intermediate rails 
can be brought to grade by placing blocks four to 
six inches high at each of the above points and 
by the foreman sighting from one block to the 
other and a section man holding a third block 
between the joints and centers of all the rails to 
be brought to grade; this latter work should be 
done on the line rail; then with a long straight 
edge or track board the points between the joints 
and centers can be brought to grade. The other 
rail can be brought to grade with the track level. 
This level should often be tested by reversing it 
on a level surface. Where the length of the track 
to be surfaced is short or only slightly out of sur- 
face in spots and the amount to be lifted is small, 
a track jack need not be used — the lifting in sach 
cases can be done with bars. On curves and spirals 
the proper elevation must be given. "^ 

At bridges the track should never be raised 
above the exact grade; no allowance should be 
made at such places for the trains bringing the 
track to grade. Once a year a general surfacing 

*See elevation of outer rail on curves in chapter on "Track", 
Appendix J and Table No. 17, Appendix J. 



424 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWATS. 

should be done over the entire section; the track 
should be raised just enough for proper tamping; 
section men are inclined to raise it too much if 
not carefully watched. Where the ballast is stone, 
slag or coarse gravel, the track will have to be 
raised one to two inches to secure thorough 
tamping, while with sand, cinders, earth, or fine 
gravel a rise of one-half to one inch can be made 
by tamping without disturbing the bed of the tie. 
This work can be done to advantage after the re- 
newal of ties which sljould be early in the season 
and again before winter. 

Tamping. Tamping is done at the same time 
as surfacing. The amount of track lifted off its 
old bed for surfacing and tamping at any one 
time should never be of a greater length than can 
be fully tamped between trains; both rails should 
be brought to surface before the tamping is fully 
done. Earth, sand and gravel ballast can be 
tamped by two men on opposite sides of the tie 
working with a shovel pressing the ballast by a 
prying motion under the tie; more satisfactory 
work, however, is done by finishing the tamping 
with tamping bars. Coarse, clean gravel, slag 
and stone ballast requires more force to drive it 
under the tie and a tamping pick is used for this 
purpose. On new track the full length of the tie 
should be tamped, on old track a foot each side 
of the rail should be tamped firmest and the center 
of the tie but slightly or not at all, this prevents 
the track from becoming center bound, which in- 
creases the tendency to get out of line, and also 
the liability of the ties breaking at the center. 



MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 425 

Joint ties should be tamped first and the others 
afterwards, bringing the rail to grade with the 
joint. The ties at crossings, switches and frogs 
should be tamped very thoroughly. 

Low joints will be a frequent trouble in track 
on a new road and the uneven settlement of the 
embankments will require a great deal of extra 
labor and watchfulness on the part of the section 
force. 

Tie Renewals. Tie renewals are generally de- 
cided by the roadmaster jointly with the section 
foreman. These renewals should never be in 
long continuous stretches, but on the basis of what 
is known as ^'spotting" the ties. The section 
foreman should go over his section and mark 
those ties which he thinks are unfit for further 
service; afterward the roadmaster accompanies 
him and he decides the number of ties to report 
for each mile and section; and the management 
decides how many their resources will permit 
them to allow for the next season. When ties 
are renewed in long continuous stretches, a large 
percentage of them again require renewal at the 
same time. This is liable to occur during a period 
of financial depression, while if the renewals were 
made on the method called ''spotting," careful 
attention to the tie renewals could be so managed 
as to greatly decrease the expenses at such a 
period. New ties are distributed as ordered by 
the roadmaster in the early spring or late winter 
months, so that the section force can commence 
putting them in the track as soon as the frost is 



426 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

out of the ground. Mr. Tratman states :^ '' For 
tie renewals in gravel ballast, the ballast is cut 
away from the ends of the ties and loosened along 
their sides. The spikes are then drawn and the 
rails raised slightly by jacks, just enough to allow 
of the old tie being knocked out and a new one 
slipped in on the same bed. The ballast should 
not be dug out under the tie unless the new tie 
is of greater thickness (which it should not be), 
as the less the tie beds are disturbed the better 
for the maintenance of the track surface. This 
general rule may, however, be modified where 
only one or two ties are to be renewed in a rail 
length, but in this case a loosening of the side of 
the tie bed will usually enable the old tie to be 
taken out and the new one put in without much 
disturbance of the bed,and without the disturbance 
of the adjacent track which is incidental to rais- 
ing by jacks. With stone, slag or coarse gravel 
ballast, which is liable to fall onto the tie bed 
when the tie is removed, it is necessary to dig 
out the ballast at one side of the tie, and to knock 
the tie sideways into this trench. Some foremen 
prefer this plan with earth or common gravel, 
h\\\j the amount of digging required is liable to 
disturb and loosen the ballast. This plan may, 
however, be employed Avhen two adjacent ties 
have to be renewed. If the ties are not uniform, 
the larger ones should be selected for the joints 
and for curves; and the wider end should be 
placed under the outer rail on curves. The ties 



'Railway Track and Track Work," Tratman, pp. 295, 296. 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 427 

should be properly spaced, placed square across 
the track (or radially on curves) and their ends 
should be lined at one side of the track. It is 
rarely economical to turn old ties except where 
tie plates are to be applied, and then it is prob- 
ably better to turn the ties than to adze out new 
seats on the old worn faces. If the traffic is 
heavy, each tie should be tamped and have the 
outside spikes driven at once. Otherwise, a 
number of ties may be renewed in succession; 
one man going ahead to cut the earth or gravel 
from the ends of the ties, two men pulling spikes, 
and two men raising the track with jacks. If 
only one jack is to be had, the rail first raised 
should be blocked up, and the jack then put under 
the other rail. When 20 or 30 ties have been 
thus put in, three men are sent back to do the 
spiking, one holding up the ties with a bar and 
two driving the spikes. The new ties should be 
tamped each day as put in, the tamping being 
done thoroughly with a bar or pick. The ballast 
is then filled in between the ties and dressed to 
proper shape. If the new ties are shovel-tamped, 
or only partially tamped with bars and then left 
to be finished a few days later, the old ties will 
be disturbed and a soft spot probably caused, 
especially if rain falls before the tamping is done. 
No train should be allowed to pass over untamped 
track, the foreman taking it for granted that it 
is safe. At the end of each week the ties re- 
moved should be i)roperly piled on the right of 
way, at a convenient distance from the track if 
they are to be loaded on cars, or midway between 



4128 BUILDING AND EEPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

the track and the fence if they are to be burned. 
They should not be left in the ditches or scat- 
tered about the right of way. Ties may be burned 
in small piles of 5 to 10 or in large piles of 50, 
but the former is usually the better and safer 
plan. The piles should not be near the track as 
the intense heat is injurious to the paint and 
varnish of cars. Large piles should be burned 
in damp weather to reduce the danger from fire, 
and in all cases the burning piles should be 
watched to prevent fire from spreading to fences, 
fields, etc."* 

Tie Plates. Tie plates of various styles and 
their use have been described in another chapter. 
The method of preparing the tie to properly bed 
them, and the method of placing them true to 
gauge, will now be stated. The Ware tie plate 
surfacer and gauge is probably more used than 
any other; it admits of both ends of a tie, how- 
ever roughly hewn,being brought to the same plane 
at points where tie plates are to be embedded 
or rails to rest. The tie plates can be embedded 
into the ties before they are placed in the track 
and when hewn ties are used, whether tie plates 
are used or not, they can be properly surfaced at 
the points where the rails are to rest, in advance 
of the work of putting ties into the track. The 
Ware tie plate surfacer and gauge is illustrated 
by Fig. 318. 

To practically apply this tool, it is to be first 
adjusted so that the heads 1 and 2 will be the 

*The reader is referred to Appendix J for practice of Penn- 
sylvania and Northern Pacific Railways. 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 



429 




=.=^ 



2 7^ 



b D b 



Wf 



H 



J=^ 




?~~Er7TM 



B I ' ■■■■■ ■■ ' ■■■■:=| pr- 



?^ 




J/ 

r 

"N 



LI! 477 



4 ^X,0 



^!!^^' 



Fig. 318. 

THE WARE TIE PLATE SURF ACER AND GAUGE. 

E is a perspective of the combined Tie Plate Surf acer and Gauge. 

H Is an elevation of the tool showing its use on a tie to ascertain the 
level of the same at points where the tie plates are to be embedded. 

I is a plan showing the tool as used to square and gauge the tie plates. 

K is an elevation showing the tool as used for testing the level of the em- 
bedded tie plates. 

L is the plan showing the implement as used for gauging tie plates after 
ties are put in the track. 



430 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

proper distance apart to correspond with the de- 
sired track gauge and with the dimensions of 
the tie plates that are to be used. The surfacers, 
4, are brought accurately into the same plane, 
and the thumb screw, 8, is then tightened to 
secure the adjustable head. 

Where hewn ties are to be used, it will gen- 
erally be necessary to determine the level of 
the points where the tie plates B are to be embedded 
or set. This is accomplished by laying the in- 
strument on the tie, as shown in H, with the 
surfacers 4 placed flatwise on the proposed loca- 
tions of the tie plates. If these points are found 
to be not sufficiently in the same plane, the sur- 
facers 4 will indicate the uneven places that will 
have to be leveled with an adze. The tie being 
shown to be level, or substantially so, at re- 
quired points, the tool will then be turned partly 
over, as shown in I, so that the straight edges 5 
will be in contact with the spots where the tie 
plates B are to be located. Each straight edge 5 
forms a square with the inner face of the ad- 
jacent surfacer. 

One of the plates is then put into the angle 
formed by the straight edge 5 and inner side of 
the surfacer 4, on what is known as the line end 
of the tie. Thus, this tie plate is accurately 
squared to the position to be occupied by the rail. 
The tool is then removed, leaving the tie plate in 
position, and this tie plate can be set or em- 
bedded into hardwood ties by the means of a 
suitable wooden beetle without the use of any- 
thing to protect the most frail tie plate from 
Injury. 



MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 431 

The tool is then put back on the tie in the 
position represented in I, so that the second tie 
plate can be placed to accurately conform to the 
required position with relation to the tie plate pre- 
viously set. The tool having been again removed, 
this second tie plate will now be embedded the 
same as the first. 

If desired, the tool can now be applied as 
shown in K, with the surfacers 4 turned flatwise, 
to test the surface level of the tie plates. The 
position and level of these tie plates being found 
satisfactory the tie is now ready to be placed in 
the track. 

It will be obvious that by the aid of this tool 
the plates can be quickly and accurately applied 
to a tie at the required gauge or distance apart 
before the tie is placed in the track and in such 
relation to the rail bases that there will be no 
difficulty in subsequently entering through the 
holes B the spikes that are to secure the rails. 

To apply tie plates to ties already in the 
track, see L, from which will be seen that the 
fixed head 1 has the end of its surfacer 4 made 
on a concave or arc 10 with end points 11 in the 
same plane; this will enable that end of the in- 
strument to be placed closely and accurately 
against the web or base of the rail that is already 
in the track. Thus, if it is desired to apply tie 
plates to ties that are in the track, the spikes 
must be drawn from the rails under which they 
are to be embedded and the rails moved out on 
the end of the ties, the same as is usually done 
in the work of changing rails. By this means 



432 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

the rail is entirely out of the way of embedding 
plates. If the ties, at points where the plates are 
to be set, are known to be sufficiently level to 
allow the plates to be properly embedded, the 
work of embedding can now proceed, by first plac- 
ing the fixed head 1 as shown in L and the 
adjustable head 2, having been previously adjusted 
to the required gauge by the means of thumb screw 
8, a tie plate will be placed against the square end 
of surfacer 4 of the adjustable head and against 
12 where it will be ready to embed as before 
described. 

For economical and expeditious work of apply- 
ing plates in this way, it has been found advisable 
to get as many spikes drawn as safety will allow, 
plug all spike holes and do all adzing possible 
before disturbing the rails. Then, when there is 
sufficient time between trains to allow of such 
work being done, put all the men with claw bars 
at work to draw the remaining spikes and move 
the rails out on the end of the ties as befoie de- 
scribed, then organize the men three in a gang, 
one man to carry the gauge and place the plates 
in the square; the other two men with wooden 
beetles settle the plates into the ties. The first 
blow, at least, should be given by a man standing 
at right angles with the longitudinal ribs of the 
tie plate, if such plates are beiug used; this will 
cause the plate to settle more accurately. When 
sufficient number of plates have been embedded 
to allow rails to be moved into position, turn 
back one of the embedding gangs to move the 
rails in onto the plates and spike them; thus 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 433 

keeping the different parts of the work going at 
the same time, so that should an unexpected 
train arrive there would be little delay in mak- 
ing the track passable. By using this method 
plates can be embedded with surprising rapidity 
and perfectness. 

B^ails and rail joint fastenings. Rails and rail 
joint fastenings were discussed in the chapter 
on ''Standards" and the reader is referred to that 
chapter. 

Ditches and embankments. All ditching in cuts, 
dressing up of embankments and ballast should 
be done in a manner to retain the standard cross 
sections adopted. Under no conditions should 
earth be taken off the shoulder of an embank- 
ment to be used in raising track or ballasting; 
neither should earth be taken from the slopes to 
build out the shoulder of an embankment — this 
leads to a slackness in the slope as shown in the 
chapter on* 'Construction," Fig. 45. The bermes 
should not be robbed to secure material for slack 
embankments, they keep the water away from 
the roadbed and aid in drainage. 

Small repairs to embankments can be made by 
the section gang cleaning ditches in the cuts and 
taking the material with a push car to the point 
it is needed on the embankment. When the 
slopes of embankments need extensive repairs it 
is cheaper to put on a work train or a gang with 
teams, plows and scrapers if the embankment is 
not over 6 to 8 feet high. This gang should take 
the material from the ditch or on the outside of 
the ditch; under no circumstances should the 

24 Vol. 13 



434 



BUILDING JiJTl) EEPAIItlJSO HjULWAYS. 



berme be disturbed. As the freezing of winter 
followed by the thawing and rains of spring 
brings down large quantities of material from the 
slopes of some cuts, various devices have been 
designed to aid in saving labor in removing it. 
Fig. 319 represents the American Railway Ditch- 
ing Machine, which is designed to do this work. 




Fig. 319. 

AMERICAN RAILWAY-DITCHING MACHINE. 

For cleaning and ditching mud cuts. For scraping in dry cuts after same 
have been plowed. Simple in construction and economical in operation. 
Durable and easily handled; it can be quickly moved out of the way of pass- 
ing trains. Reversible, works either way without turning car or engine. 
Will scrape both ditches at the same time. The buckets are used in the 
same manner as an ordinary scraper. 

Directions for using the American Railway Ditching machine. —If 
possible use an air-brake locomotive with this machine. See that slack be- 
tween car and engine is well taken up, so as to prevent unnecessary jerking. 
Strengthen spring-hangers in the ordinary car, as the strain, at times,is quite 
severe. This result can be accomplished by putting in additional hangers. 
Use as small a wheel on car as possible; 20-inch wheels are the best 
size, although the ordinary flat car wheel will do the work. 

Sivitches. — Switches were discussed in a gen- 
eral way in the chapter on *' Standards," and 



MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 



435 








430 BUILDING AND HE PAIRING EAILWAY8. 

more in detail in the chapter on ^' Track," to 
both of which the reader is referred. A Clarke- 
Jeffrey Split Switch is illustrated by Fig.. 320. 
This is the original split switch first used in the 
United States; the improvements introduced by 
various makers have had for their purpose the 
taking up of the wear of the switch points, 
thus preserving the true gauge and reducing the 
liability of the flanges of the wheels entering be- 
tween the rail and switch point. The bridle rods 
have been modified to give greater stiffness in 
order to preserve the gauge, and in the Transit 
Split Switch (Fig. 321) they have been reduced 
to one and placed alongside a tie, thus facilitat- 
ing the operation of tamping the ties and not 
being in the way of snow and ice. The Channel 
Split Switch (Fig. 322) has no bridle rods. The 
slide plates, in some cases, are extended across 
the track from rail to rail, and planed out for the 
base of the rail to set in, thus preserving the 
gauge (see Figs. 321 and 322). There are makes 
of switch stands which admit of this being done. 
Fig. 135 represents one. The adjustment for the 
wear of the points is taken up by some makers at 
the switch stand; Fig. 321 shows a method of 
doing it with the head and bridle rods. 

Fig. 323 illustrates the Lorenz Safety Split 
Switch. The peculiarity of this switch consists 
in the safety appliance being a heavy spring at- 
tached to a bridle rod at the point of the switch; 
this spring is strong enough to cause positive 
motion of the switch points, yet when a car from 
a siding runs into the switch, the spring will give 



MAINTENANC\tJ OF WAY, 



437 





M 



I 



HI 
o 

EH 

• ? 

CO 5 

2 ^ 



438 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 




MAINTENANCE OF WAY, 



439 




''^"EJ i i 



Fig. 823. 

LORENZ SAFETY SPLIT SWITCH. 

and permit the car to pass through and the spring 
will throw the 'switch points back to the^'r orig- 
inal position. 

Illustrations of some of the v^arious styles of 
connecting rods to connect switches with switch 



Rigid Connecting Rod with Safety End, used with Switches that 
have large pin on Head Rod with Safety Clip, as used on the Dodd- 
ridge Safety Switch. 



Rigid Connecting Rod with Jaw End, used with Head Rod having 
Flat End. 



Spring Connecting Rod. 

Fig. 324. 

VIEWS OF DIFFERENT CONNECTING RODS. 

A is used with the bridle red. 

C is a guhstitute for the spring on the Lorenz switch. 



440 



BUILDING AND BE PAIRING RAILWAYS, 



stands are given in Fig. 324, and an illustration 
of some of the bridle rods and methods of attach- 
ing them to the rails of stub switches and switch 
points of split switches is given in Fig. 325. 




Fig. 325. 

VIEWS OF DIFFERENT STYLES OF BRIDLE RODS AND METHODS 
OF CONNECTING THEM TO THE RAIL. 

Frogs. — Frogs were discussed in the chapter on 
^^ Standards;" Figs. 326 and 327 illustrate two 
styles of yoked frogs. One is made by the Ram- 
apo Iron Works, and the other Strom frog by 
Pettibone, MuUiken & Co. Both aim to prevent 




Fig. 32f\ 

RAMAPO YOKED FROG. 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 



441 





Fig. 327. 

STROM CLAMP OR YOKED FROG. 
A— For sidings. 
B— For crossings at small angles. 

the yoke slipping by different methods. In the 
Ramapo frog the clamp is turned up flatwise, and 
is anchored by a rod bolted to the rail; this rod 
passes through the yoke key, and a nut screwed 
tight against the key and fastened by a nut lock. 
The cut represents the point and wing rails con- 
nected by a notch, though they can be planed 
straight as with the Strom frog if desired. With 
the Strom frog the main point of difference is 
that the clamp or yoke is bent edgewise and the 
ends of the clamps are forged to fit the rail sec- 
tions, thus doing away with the yoke key; the 
yokes are driven on tight, and anchored by stay 
rods which pass over the end of the wing rails 
and through the yokes. Cotters are placed in 
the stay rods to prevent the yokes or clamps 
from slipping. 

Foot guards are required at all frogs, and guard 
rails to prevent section and train men from get- 
ting their feet fastened so they cannot escape 
from approaching trains. Fig. 328 illustrates a 



442 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

frog having wooden foot guards, and Fig. 329 
illustrates the use of iron foot guards. 






Fig. 328. 

FROG WITH WOOD FOOT GUARDS. 




Fig. 329. 

FROG WITH IRON FOOT GUARDS. 

Ordering frogs and switch points or tongues 
often leads to confusion on account of the section 
foreman or clerk not thoroughly understanding 
when they are right or left hand. A good rule 
is to stand at the head block and look towards 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 



443 



O 
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6 






w 
o 

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o 

S 



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444 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 



the frog; if the frog is on the right hand it is a 
right hand frog, or if it is on the left hand it is a 
lefb hand frog; the same rule applies to the switch 
points or tongues of a split switch and to the 
head blocks of a stub switch. Fig. 330 illustrates 
a right hand switch and Fig. 331 illustrates a 
left hand one. The names of the different parts 
of a frog and their uses are illustrated by Fig. 
332. Instructions for taking the angle of a frog 
are given in Fig. 333. Tables No. 11 and 12, 



©""" 
^ 




Fig. 332. 

RIGHT HAND FROG. 
With the names of the different parts; the names would be the same with 
a left hand frog only the main and side points would change positions. 
The main point connects with the main line rail and the side point with the 
side track rail. 




Fig. 333. 



TO TAKE THE ANGLE OF A FROG. 

M:Wi8ure A-B andC-D and add them together, then divide the distance 
B-C by their sum. 

Example: Distance A-B-=8", C-D=4", then 8-f-4=12. The distance 
B-C=72", 72^12=6 or No. 6 Frog. 

Caution. In measuring be careful that all measurements are made on 
the running line. 



MAlNTENAJfCE OF WAY. 



445 



Appendix J, give the angles of frogs of different 
numbers. Headblocks or headcliairs are made of 
either cast or wrought iron. Fig. 334 illustrates 




Fig. 334. 



HEAD BLOCKS OR HEAD CHAIRS FOR STUB SWITCHES. 

Xos. I and 2 for right hand main line rail. 
Nos. 4 and 5 for left hand main line rail. 
Nos. 2 and 4 for single throw switch. 
Nos. 4 and 5 for three throw switch. 
Nos. 6 and 7 cast iron rail braces. 




Fig. 335. 

BRYANT PORTABLE RAIL SAW, 
Capable of sawing a rail up to 100 lbs. per yard. 



446 



BUILDINO AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 



a pair for single and three throw switches. The 
chapter on ''Track" and the tables in Appendix J 
give instructions about laying out side tracks. In 
laying out sidings and placing guard rails it is 
often necessary to cut the rails — this should 
always be done with a rail saw. Fig. 335 illus- 
trates a Bryant portable rail saw and the rails 
should be properly curved before laying them. 
Fig. 336 and 337 illustrate rail benders. 




Fig. 336. 

RAIL BENDER AND STRAIGHTENER. 

Place Bender over rail as shown above, turn up nut on center screw with 
Jong wrench furnished with each machine, until set for desired curve, tten 
place socket wrench on pin in center roller, put long lever on top of socket 
and then one or more men at each end of lever can turn center roller, which 
causes the machine to move forward on rail, bending same as it moves. 
To straighten rails, place machine on opposite side of curve and then op- 
erate as above. The number of men necessary to do the work Is governed 
by weight of rail and curvature desired. 

Switches and frogs require constant attention 
to keep them in good working order and safe for 
fast trains; in the winter the ice and snow must 



MAINTENANCE OF WAT, 



447 




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448 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

be removed promptly after each storm. The 
Roadmasters' Association in 1898 recommended 
for split switches — points fifteen feet long prop- 
erly reinforced and provided with stop lugs, two 
adjustable tie bars, a wrought iron plate extend- 
ing through under both rails with rail braces, 
slide plates under main rail heavy enough not to 
bend and to have rail braces on the outside. 

Creeping rails. Creeping rails are another 
source of trouble in maintaining track. * Creeping 
takes place at switches more frequently than any- 
where else. It is not so troublesome, however, 
with the split switch as with the stub switch. 
The Roadmasters' Association discussed this sub- 
ject at their annual meeting in 1898 and came to 
the following conclusion: 

The creeping is not alike for both rails; in 
double track roads the rails creep in the direction 
of the traffic; the movement is greater on down 
than up grades and is worse where tracks have to 
be laid over marsh or soft yielding sub-soil. On 
single track it is most noticeable on down 
grades, and where there are descending grades 
from both directions, the rails creep down and 
come together in the valley. On curves the outer 
or high rail creeps the more and where there are 
successive reverse curves especially on grades, 
the creep starts on tangents at the approach and 
continues on the high rail to end of first curve, 
then the opposite rail on reverse curve shows the 
more creep. In other words the high rail in each 

*The movement of the rail in the direction of its length is 
called "creeping." 



MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 449 

successive curve is found to creep more than the 
low rail. The cause of creeping is because of a 
rolling load passing over the rail which depresses 
the track directly under it and produces a corre- 
sponding elevation and depression ahead and be- 
hind it which may be likened to a wave motion. 
Mr. F. A. Delano, Superintendent of Freight 
Terminals of the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy 
Railroad assisted by Mr. J. E. Howard of the 
Watertown Arsenal found by experiment that 
the ground near a locomotive weighing 110,000 
pounds on a track having sixty-six pound rails 
resting on oak ties, seventeen to a thirty-foot 
rail, and in gravel ballast, the greatest depression 
was 0.161 inch under the middle driver. Under 
similar conditions, but with cinder ballast instead 
of gravel, the depression under the middle driver 
was 0.230 inch. The depression of the ground 
caused by 125,000 pound locomotive under the 
above conditions with gravel ballast at a poiiit 
opposite the main driver was as follows: 

Distance from the rail, 31 inches, depression 0.047 inch. 
<i <t gi «t i Q013 »« 

With the track depressed under the weight of 
an engine a corresponding rise just ahead of it to 
be afterwards depressed as the engine approaches 
it and passes over it produces a violent wave 
motion under high speed which is the cause of 
creeping rails. The movement of the rail tends 
to carry the tie with it and where the ballast is 
not filled up to the top of the tie at the end, the 
tie acts as a lever, the balance at the center being 

25 Vol. 13 



450 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

a fulcrum and the twisting of the tie in the track 
tends to tighten the gauge; this takes place more 
at the joint ties and more particularly where the 
rails are laid with broken joints. This tendency 
to move the ties takes them off their well tamped 
bed, and tends to produce a creeping of the whole 
track w^hich will lead to a general disintegration 
and destroy the alignment and surface, which 
will require a large amount of hard work to 
place the track in proper condition again. There 
is not at present any known method of prevent- 
ing rails from creeping, but the evil can be less- 
ened by resorting to devices for anchoring the 
rails at the joint by spiking the tie through the 
slot in the angle bar; the larger the number of 
ties thus spiked, the more firmly the rail is se- 
cured. Some roads having rails laid with bf oken 
joints use sections of an angle bar, bolted to the 
rail opposite the joint and spike the tie through 
the slot in these sections of the angle bar; this 
tends to prevent the tie from twisting and tight- 
ening the gauge. One end of a flat bar of iron 
turned half round is sometimes placed inside the 
nut of track bolts at the joint, and the other end 
spiked to a tie to secure greater resistance. At 
entrances to yards or points where the rails creep 
much, some roadmasters anchor the rails by 
spiking a piece of strap iron to three or more 
ties, the spikes being placed in holes bored in 
the strap iron. The vertical and lateral motions 
can be retarded or reduced to a minimum by 
having a stiff rail in section to transmit the load 
over the greatest possible surface of ties and bal- 



MAINTENANCE Ot WJ^r, 



451 



last with good broad ties placed as close together 
as good tamping will permit; the spikes should 
be well driven and the ballast dressed off as full 
as possible at the end of the ties. Figs. 338 and 
339 represent plans sometimes adopted to allow 
for the expansion and contraction at difficult 
points. 




Fig. 338. 



PLAN AND ELEVATION OP A JOINT TO TAKE UP THE EXP AN- 
SION AND CONTRACTION OF RAILS. 




FA^^-gM-. 



Fig. 339. 



EXPANSION JOINT FOR A BRIDGE OR DIFl^^ICULT 
PIECE OF TRACK. 
Used on bridges and at points where expansion and contraction of rails 
is such that they cannot, without considerable trouble, be kept in line. This 
device is also used where creeping of rails is troublesome. 



45:] 



BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 



Track Sprinkling, — Oil has recently been tried 
to reduce the dust caused by fast passenger 
trains; the oil used is residuum of crude petrol- 
eum, having a high fire test, low gravity and 
only a faint smell. The first application requires 
about 2,000 gallons per mile, and about 500 to 600 
gallons per mile per year will keep the ballast 
dustless, after tie renewals, etc. The sprinkling 
train is run at a speed of about 3i to 4 miles per 
hour. In front is a flat car fitted with a 2-inch 
pipe across between the rails and a 2-inch swing 
pipe on each side, all these pipes having slots on 
the under side. The supply is brought from a 
tank car to these pipes by a 4-inch main. The 
regulating valves and swing pipes are all con- 
trolled by levers or handles on the fiat car. With 
piping swung out, a distance of 15 to 20 feet of 
roadbed may be sprinkled.*^ Those who have 




Fig. 342. 



PLAN AND SECTION SHOWING PIPING NECESSARY TO FIT A 
FLAT CAR TO SPRINKLE TRACK WITH OIL. 



* This practice originated with Mr. J. H. Nichol, Assistant 
Engineer of the W. J. & S. Ry., in 1897, and has since been fol- 
lowed on the Penn. R. R., Boston & Maine R. R., Long Island 
Ry., and Chicago, Bur. & Quincy R. R, 



MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 453 

used it claim it not only lessens the dust, thus 
saving the journals, but it causes the water to 
run off the roadbed better, giving a dryer ballast, 
prevents weeds from growing and preserves the 
ties. Fig. 342 shows the plan and elevation of a 
flat car, indicating the method of arranging the 
j)ipes filled for the purpose of sprinkling track 
with oil. 

Crossings. — Road crossings should never, if 
possible to avoid it, be made where the track is 
laid in a cut. They should be of ample width 
and easy grade; they are generally made by 
planking spiked to the ties; good results, how- 
ever, have been secured by placing a plank at 
each rail and filling in between the planks with 
broken stone. The place between the planks 
should only be sufficient to give clearance for the 
flanges of the car wheels. A cattle guard should 
be placed each side of the crossing, and fences 
run from the cattle guard to the right of way 
fence. 

Signs. — Signs are required for a number of 
purposes. They are of two classes, one warns the 
public and the other guides and warns the train- 
men. At all side tracks low posts called clear- 
ance posts are placed. These indicate that cars 
on a siding should not be placed beyond them, as 
they are liable to interfere with passing trains on 
the adjoining track. Yard limit posts are placed 
each side of a yard to indicate to approaching 
trains the track under the jurisdiction of the 
yardmaster. Posts with signs having the name 
of the station are placed each side of a station 



454 BUILDING AND RE FAIRING RAILWAYS. 

and one mile from it. The station name is more 
noticeable to passengers when placed on the ends 
of the station than when on or in front of it. 
Mile posts, with the number of miles from a ter- 
minal point, should be set in the right of way near 
the fence to mark the beginning and ending of each 
mile. The sections allotted to section gangs are 
numbered, and posts giving the number of the 
sections on each side thereof should be set at 
the ends of all sections. Farm crossings are 
sometimes designated by a sign having a large X 
plainly painted on it; this is placed 100 feet 
from the farm crossing. Road crossings should 
have a whistling post placed 1,000 feet from the 
crossing and a sign at the crossing warning the 
public to look out for trains. Railroad crossings 
not protected by an interlocking plant should 
have signs placed 400 feet distant each Avay on 
both roads, notifying all trains to come to a stop 
before going over the crossing. Draw bridges 
should have signs placed 600 feet each side. 

Shimming. — '^When the ballast is frozen in 
the winter it cannot be tamped, and if the track 
is heaved by frost the surface is made uneven 
both transversely and longitudinally. This must 
be tested by a level for the former and by sight- 
ing or the use of a long straight-edge for the lat- 
ter. In such cases wooden plates or shims must 
be placed between the rail and the tie to bring 
the rail up to proper surface. The upper face 
of the tie should not be adzed to lower the rail, 
unless this is absolutely necessary, but the shims 
should be placed on the lower ties. Shimming is 



MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 455 

also required with soft ballast that is so soft after 
heavy rains that tamping is impracticable, the 
ballast and roadbed being so saturated that no 
other method of surfacing is effective. In some 
very bad cases, or in accidents, blocking must be 
used under the ties, but this should be avoided 
when possible, and the foreman must see that 
this blocking is not forgotten and left in place, 
but that it is taken out when the shims are re- 
moved or when the ballast has dried out suffi- 
ciently to give the track a proper bearing. As 
the frost comes out of the ground and the ground 
settles, thinner shims must be substituted for the 
thicker ones to prevent surface bending of the 
rails. The shims should never be left in place 
after the spring; and as fast as they are removed 
the spike holes in the ties should be properly 
plugged. Heaving is most troublesome in earth 
and clay, but is also felt in gravel. Where much 
trouble is experienced from heaving, it will 
usually be found economical to apply gravel bal- 
last liberally; as the spiking and shimming injure 
the ties and spoil the permanent surface of the 
track. The shims may be cut by the section 
men, but it is better to use those cut by machin- 
ery having two spike holes bored diagonally oppo- 
site one another. They are about 6 inches wide, 
and the length should be at least equal to three 
times the width of the rail base, so as to give 
ample room for spiking and keeping the spikes 
clear of the angle-bars. The thickness is from 
f -inch to 2 inches. If a raise of more than 2 
inches is required, a piece of 1-inch to 3-inch 



45G BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

plank should first be spiked to the tie by boat- 
spikes, the plank being about two feet long, or as 
long as the tie if both rails have to be shimmed. 
Upon this plank should be placed shims to bring 
the rail to the required level, these being fast- 
ened by long spikes passing through shims and 
plank into the tie. With specially high shim- 
ming it is well to place rail braces outside the 
rails, especially on curves. Where tie plates are 
used, the plates should not be taken off, but the 
shims placed on them, and if the shimming is 
high a tie plate may be placed on its top. The 
tie should be adzed to give a level seat for the 
shims. Spiking should be attended to as fast as 
the shimming is put in, and if a whole rail 
length is to be shimmed, the joint, center and 
quarter ties should be first shimmed and spiked." 
Fencing, — ''In setting fences, the distance 
from the center line of the track may be meas- 
ured by a tape, and the line of fence set off by a 
cord or chain 100 to 200 feet long, having tags at 
the post spacing. When this is stretched a small 
hole is cut at each tag as a guide to the post set- 
ters. The post holes should be of uniform depth, 
gauged by a stick, and the height of the post 
above ground may be gauged by a stick having a 
flat piece nailed on the bottom. This latter 
stick may also have notches for the fence wires, 
to hold them at the proper spacing while being 
stapled to the posts. On curves the position of 
each post should be measured from the center of 
the track, and a mark made or stake driven. 
For wire fencing, posts may be set and tempor- 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 457 

arily braced at intervals of from 40 to 80 rods 
(660 to 1,320 feet) and one wire stretched first 
as a guide for the other posts. On the inner side 
of a curve the wire should be on the track side 
of the post or on the track and field sides of al- 
ternate posts. The wires are attached to a strain- 
ing post and set up by a stretcher, but in the 
absence of this tool a lining bar may be used, 
placed diagonally, with the top inclined towards 
the anchor post, and the wire being looped 
around the bar. In summer the wires must not 
be drawn too tight. With board fences the alter- 
nate posts may be set first, 16 feet apart, and a 
line of boards nailed along them will serve as a 
guide for lining the intermediate posts. The 
boards should be on the farm side of the posts. 
The material and labor per mile for a four-board 
fence with posts 8 feet apart, and a five-wire 
fence wdth posts 16 feet apart, are about as fol- 
lows: 

Board fence; 

660 posts. 
1,320 boards, 1x6 inches, 16 feet long, 10,560 feet B. M. 
660 battens, 1x6 inches, 4 feet long, 1,320 feet B. M. 
250 pounds nails. 
65 days' labor for one man. 
Wire fence: 

330 posts. 
26,400 feet of wire at 440 pounds per strand, 2,200 pounds. 
75 pounds staples. 
27 days' labor for one man. 

'' In the 'Trackman's Helper,' by Mr. Kindelan, 
it is stated that the average day's labor for 
one man on a six-board fence, including setting 
posts, is 8 to 10 panels where the boards meet 
on the post, or 13 to 15 panels where they lap 



458 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

on opposite sides of the post. On a four-wire 
fence with 16-foot panels, the average is about 
15 panels. These figures vary, of course, with 
the details of the work and character of the men. 
The cost per 100 rods (1,650 feet) for fence 
building and repairs, with labor at $1.50 per day, 
has been estimated as follows: Five-wire fence: 
$6.00 for removing old fence and posts; $16.50 
for putting in new posts 3 feet to 3 feet 6 inches 
deep and stringing wires. Board fence: $4.50 to 
$5.00 for removing old fence and posts; $32.00 
for putting in new posts 8 feet long (set 3 feet 
deep) and putting on seven boards; or $42.00 for 
posts 10 feet long (set 3 feet 6 inches deep) and 
putting on nine boards. The painting or daub- 
ing of advertisements on board fences is very ob- 
jectionable, and at least one road has forbidden 
it, making a practice of painting out such disfig- 
uring marks." 

Clearing Right of Way. — '*A11 grass, weeds and 
brush on the right of way should be cut at least 
once a year, and preferably twice a year. This 
should be done in the months which are most 
suitable, according to the latitude, but being in 
any case done before the seeding time of the 
plants. After the grubbing, cutting and mowing, 
the material should be raked into heaps and 
burned as soon as it is dry enough, care being 
taken that the fire is not allowed to extend to 
fences, trestles or adjoining land. Old ties, 
splice bars, tools, etc., found during this clearing 
up should be removed and properly disposed of. 
If the brush on the right of way is allowed to 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 459 

grow too long it is liable to cause accidents, con- 
cealing cattle which may stray on the track in 
front of a train, while it is also liable to catch 
fire in dry weather, such a fi-re being hard to 
check or stop. Reports of locomotives Avhich 
throw sparks badly, and of fires started by sparks 
from locomotives, should be made by the section 
foreman and road master. The spark arresters of 
locomotives should be examined frequently in 
hot, dry weather, when standing crops, weeds on 
the right of way, etc., are liable to catch fire. 
Where the right of way is covered with good 
grass, it may be mowed and used or sold for hay 
under the direction of the roadmaster. 

''The grass and weeds in the ballast and along 
the sides of the roadbed have also to be cut or 
pulled up, and this is tiresome and unpleasant 
work, though necessary for keeping a good look- 
ing track. A long handled sharp hoe is better 
than a shovel if there is much of this work to be 
done. Where this work is only done periodically 
on lines not kept in the best condition for appear- 
ance, it may be economically done by machinery. 
On the Intercolonial Railway the wings of a snow 
plow have been fitted with vertically adjustable 
steel cutters, 13 inches deep, 9 feet long and I 
inches thick. The first cut is made with the 
wings half open, cutting the ballast slope. The 
second cut is made with the wings spread to 
their full extent, forming the berme at the level 
of the subgrade and plowing the stuff down the 
bank. Formerly two or three furrows were 
plowed with a farm plow and a pair of horses. 



460 BUILDING AND EEPAIBING EAILWAYS. 

the sods being thrown down the bank by track- 
men with forks. The above machine is hauled 
by a locomotive, and can clean 20 to 25 miles of 
track in a day^ making a cut on each side 3 feet 
to 9i feet from the rail and to a depth of 2 feet 
below the top of the rail. The crew consists of 
two men to extend or close the wings, and two 
men to raise and lower the cutters at crossings, 
switches, etc. Such a machine is specially valu- 
able on single track roads with limited section 
forces, and it can be made out of a wing snow 
plow, or by attaching wings and cutters to a box 
car. Many ditching machines can be adapted to 
this work, as they are made to trim off the bal- 
last slopes. 

''The Sheffield weed-cutting hand car has two 
toothed cutter bars (like those of a reaping ma- 
chine) projecting from a frame between the 
wheels. The position is regulated by levers, and 
the knives will cut close to the ground and to a 
distance of eight feet from the rail. They fold 
together and swing up to a vertical position at 
the side of the car when passing an obstruction. 
It will work on level ground or on slopes, and 
when worked by four or six men it will cut along 
four or five miles per day. The machine should 
be in charge of a man with some knowledge of 
machinery and having some skill in handling 
such a machine. He may be given a certain 
length of track to look after (say 100 miles) and 
he should be familiar with that division. When 
the time for cutting comes, the section foremen 
are instructed to see that all portable obstruc- 



MAIIyTENANCE of way. 461 

tions^ old ties, etc., are removed from a strip at 
least ten feet wide from the rail. The man in 
charge takes men from each section gang to work 
over the section, making a straight run over his 
entire division, and then returning in the same 
way to cut on the other side of the track. This 
work can be done two or three times in a season, 
saving much labor and expense. The machine 
will work best when the weeds are growing rap- 
idly and are soft and tender. It has cut weeds 
10 feet high with stalks 1 inch thick, though it 
would hardly do this continuously and such work 
would be hard on the men. Under ordinary con- 
ditions, however, the car can be run at good 
speed and the work is not severe. 

^^Various methods have been tried for killing 
the grass and weeds growing in the ballast, but 
though such methods would be advantageous in 
saving time and labor expended in the back-aching 
work of cutting weeds with a shovel or hoe, none of 
them has yet so combined efficiency and low cost 
of operating as to be really practicable for gen- 
eral work. Such a method would be specially 
advantageous for roads having many weeds and 
few section men, which is the condition of many 
roads in the south and west. Brine, gasoline or 
oil burners, steam jets and electricity are among 
the means experimented with in this direction. 
In experiments with electricity on the Illinois 
Central Railway a 'brush' 10 feet long and 4 
inches wide was made of fine bare copper wires 
and suspended from the front of a flat car so that 
it would almost touch the ground. Another car 



462 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

contained an engine, dynamo, transformers, etc., 
steam being taken from the locomotive. The 
cars were run at a speed of about 5 miles per 
hour, and two trips were found sufficient to kill 
all the vegetation, an advantage of this process 
being that the roots were absolutely killed. The 
brush was in short sections, insulated from one 
another, so that all the current would not be dis- 
charged through any one weed, etc., forming a 
more than usually good conductor. A current of 
10,000 volts was found to be most satisfactory. 
For general work, however, the cost of this 
method would be prohibitive. Burning weeds 
with jets from burners u^ing crude oil and com- 
pressed air has been tried on the Minneapolis, 
St. Paul &L Sault Ste. Marie Railroad. The 
apparatus was mounted on a self-propelled flat 
car and could work over ten miles per day, con- 
suming 15 to 20 gallons of oil per mile. A strong 
solution of brine, delivered from a sprinkling at- 
tachment on a water tank car was tried at one 
time on the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Rail- 
way. It effectually killed the weeds, but caused 
a slime on the rails which led to vslipping of the 
engine wheels and corrosion of the rail, and it 
was therefore abandoned. 

^In some few cases with earth ballast, it is con- 
sidered well to let the grass grow, merely cutting 
it down so low that it will not get on the rails. 
Where the weeding is done by hand it should be 
extended to a 'grass line' 5 or 6 feet from the 
rail, this line being set out by a cord and stakes, 



MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 463 

01* marked by a cutter fixed to an r.rm bolted to 
the hand car."* 

Snoiv. ''Section foremen should ascertain the 
condition of the track in their charge immedi- 
ately after every snow storm (or wind storm) 
which would be liable to drift snow upon the 
track and report to their roadmaster the depth 
and length of snow drifts in all the cuts on their 
sections. It is of the greatest importance that 
snow reports be sent promptly to the roadmaster 
by telegraph in order that the officers of the road 
may be able to make necessary preparations 
to clear the track. When there is no snow in 
the cuts on a section it should be reported clear 
of snow. Section foremen should clear away 
snow which has drifted upon side tracks as soon 
as possible after a storm, and the snow on 
switches and in frogs and guard rails should be 
shoveled off, and the track for the full length of 
the switch lead and moving rails should be swept 
clean. This work should never be delayed, be- 
cause all freight trains will need to do switching 
as soon as the road is open for traffic. 

''During the winter months, when snow falls 
or is drifted into cuts two or more feet, section 
foremen should take their men, just as soon as 
possible after the storm, and remove from the 
track sufficient snow at the ends of all drifts to 
leave a clean flange and a clear face of snow at 
least 18 inches deep at both the approach and 
run out end of the drift. It is a notorious fact 
that a great many engines, when bucking snow, 

* ''Railway Track and Track Work/' Tratraan. pp. 307-311. 



4(H BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 

run off the track when coming out of, or running 
into a snow drift. This is generally caused by 
hard snow or ice in the flanges, as the engine, on 
being suddenly relieved of the weight of the 
snow, easily mounts the rail on a hard flangeway 
and runs off the track. 

^'Whenever the track becomes full of snow in 
the winter and needs flanging out, section fore- 
men should take their men and flange out the 
track at the tops of the heaviest grades flrst, and 
next at all places on their sections where it is 
most difficult for an engine to pull a train. 
Those parts of a section which need flanging 
least, such as high dumps, level track, or sags 
between grades, should always be left till the 
last. 

'' On roads where snow lies on the ground dur- 
ing the winter months, section foremen should 
open up all ditches, culverts, and other water 
ways which pass along or under the trac'k. Cul- 
verts which are apt to be covered with snow in 
the winter can easily be located when the thaw 
comes if a long stake is driven close to the mouth 
of each culvert early in the fall of the year, be- 
fore any snow falls on the ground. 

''In cuts that are full of snow on each side of 
the track, leaving only room enough for trains 
to pass through, foremen should make a ditch in 
the snow when it begins to melt in the spring, 
about six feet from the rails on each side of the 
track, so that when the water begins to run it 
will not injure the track by running over it. 

" If there are any snow fences for protection 
along cuts, they should be watched closely, and 



MAINTENAJSVJ^ OF WAT. 465 

whenever a fence is found which has been drifted 
full of snow or nearly so, a wall four feet high 
along the top of the highest part of the drift 
should be built with blocks of snow taken from 
the inside face of the drift. As long as the 
weather remains cool, a wall built of blocks of 
snow will give as good protection to a cut as the 
same amount of ordinary snow fence would. 
Snow walls should be made strong and thick and 
their height increased on the worst cuts in pro- 
portion to the force of men that can be spared to 
do the work; double lines of snow wall, fifty feet 
apart, should be used where they will be bene- 
ficial. 

"On the majority of Northern railroads the 
amount of snow which falls upon the ground 
during the winter months is not so great as to 
require the building of snow sheds, but to pro- 
tect the cuts along the track from filling with 
snow, fences are built along the tops of the cuts 
at a sufficient distance from the track to catch 
the snow when it is drifted, and prevent it from 
being blown into the cuts and blocking the track. 
The efficiency of a snow fence, as a protection 
against snow, depends on its strength, durability, 
height, how far it is from the track, and the 
manner in which it is arranged along the top of 
the cuts. 

''A snow fence, no matter how well made, or 
of what material, will rot and become useless in 
eight or ten years, at the latest. The yearly 
cost of repairing snow fences, the first cost, and 
the interest of the money invested, should all be 

26 Vol. 13 



466 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 

considered before putting up a snow fence on any 
railroad cut; and where the work of grading 
down a cut on each side of the track, so that it 
will not hold snow, can be done for an amount of 
money equal to the cost of the items above re- 
ferred to, the grading of the cut should be done 
in preference to the building of a snow fence. 
In many sections of the Northwest a cut which 
is only two or three feet higher than the track 
rails can be graded from the right of way limits 
down to a level with the bottom of the track 
ties, and the dirt wasted on the fills near at hand 
for less than it would cost to maintain a snow 
fence on the same cut. 

'' Even when the cost of putting a cut into 
such a condition that it will not hold snow is 
somewhat greater than that of maintaining a 
good snow fence, the difference is in favor of 
grading, on account of the benefit the track de- 
rives from it. Snow fences are not needed at 
deep cuts which from their top slope back into a 
valley within a short distance from the side of 
the track; nor are snow fences much good as a 
protection where the ground slopes with an in- 
cline off from the track, unless the fence is close 
enough to carry the vdnd above the cut, or catch 
the snow before reaching the cut. Snow fences 
are not needed on cuts where heavy timber or 
underbrush grows close along each side of the 
track, the only snow in such cuts being that 
which falls directly upon the track and cannot 
be prevented. But where the ground is level for 
some distance from the track, or on a gently roll- 



MAINTENAIfCE OF WAT. 467 

ing prairie, cuts are liable to fill up with snow if 
not properly fenced. Snow fences should "be set 
up at such a distance from the track that the 
edge of the snow drift inside of them will not 
reach within thirty feet of the track when the 
fence is drifted full. The fence should be set 
about eleven or twelve feet from the track for 
each foot in height of fence. The height oi 
the snow fence should regulate its distance from 
the track. If a snow fence is set too far from 
the track for its height, the wind, after passing 
over the top of the fence, soon strikes the ground 
on the inside of the fence and gathers all the 
snow before it into the cut, and part of the snow 
which blows over the fence is also carried upon 
the track. 

'*A snow fence is seldom set up on each side 
of the track unless the road is so situated as to 
be exposed to storms from both directions. 

" Storms from the northwest, north, and north- 
east are the most prevalent throughout the 
Northwest, and, as a general rule, the north 
sides of railroads running east and west, and the 
west sides of railroads on roads running north 
and south, need the most protection from snow 
and need the most snow fence. Where two snow 
fences are put up on one side of the track, they 
should run parallel with each other, and there 
should be a space of at least 100 feet between 
them. Unless a very large quantity of snow is 
drifted the outside fence will hold it all. 

''Very good results have been attained by set- 
ing out the snow fence next to the track in the 



468 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 

following manner: If the snow fence is of or- 
dinary height, set it up seventy-five feet from 
the nearest track rail. Enough of the snow fence 
should run parallel with the track to reach the 
full length of the cut, no more. After this part 
of the fence is up, a wing should be turned on 
each end of it, approaching the track gradually 
until the extreme end of each wing extends 100 
feet beyond the end of the cut, at a distance of 
about fifty or sixty feet from the track rail. 

" When a cut ends abruptly on the beginning 
of a high fill, the wing on that end of the snow 
fence should be turned in towards the track be- 
fore the end of the cut is reached, or at least soon 
enough to protect the cut from a quartering 
storm. A snow fence built parallel with the 
track and without a wing on the end of it, is of 
very little use when a storm blows nearly along 
the .track, as most of the snow on the inside of 
hhe fence is apt to be blown into the cut. New 
>ies which are received for repair of track the 
following Spring can be distributed and used 
advantageously to make a temporary snow fence 
on cuts where needed. The ties may be laid along 
in line with their ends lapping each other, about 
one foot slats or pieces of board can then be put 
across the ends of the ties where they lap and 
a new line of ties laid along on top of them until 
the snow fence is of the proper height. 

" Clearing the track of snow in the winter be- 
longs to the roadmaster's department. No man 
should be trusted with full charge of a snow plow 
outfit unless it be known that he understands the 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY, 469 

best methods to be employed in opening up the 
road for traffic after a blockade. The man in 
charge of a snow plow outfit should be informed 
of the exact condition of the road, the depth of 
snow, the length of drifts, and the location of 
the same, as nearly as possible, before starting 
on the road. He should have good live engines 
and willing engineers. The plow itself should, 
like the engine and engineer, be the best that 
can be procured and of a pattern that could 
throw snow out of a cut eight or ten feet deep. 
Small plows, fenders, or other makeshifts, which 
are only good to clean the rails of light snow, or 
gouge a hole through a big cut should be left at 
home and not taken out to buck snow. When 
there is a large quantity of it to be moved, the 
extra time and labor expended in shoveling and 
pulling such craft out of the snow would purchase 
a good plow in one trip over the road. Another 
engine and car with a conductor, train crew and 
shoveling gang, should follow close behind the 
snow plow during the day time, and should be 
coupled in behind the plow when running after 
dark. The second engine should be used as a 
helper in striking deep snow, and to pull out the 
plow engine whenever it is stuck fast in a snow 
drift. All cars attached to the helper engine 
should be left behind on the clear track when 
both engines run together to buck a drift of 
snow. The pilot should be removed from the 
engine which is used for a helper so that a close 
coupling can be made when both engines are 
used together. The less slack there is between 



470 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

two engines coupled together the less liability ia 
there of the hind engine pushing the front engine 
off the track. This is most liable to happen on 
a curve track, or where hard snow is encountered. 
Two engines should never be allowed to buck 
snow with a long car coupling between them or 
with a caboose or other car between the engines, 
as either arrangement endangers the lives of the 
men on the train and often results in a wreck. 
There is no necessity for using two engines be- 
hind the snow plow to buck snow which one 
engine can as well throw out. If the snow is not 
too hard one good heavy engine and plow will 
clear the track of a snow drift three to five feet 
deep and from five to eight hundred feet in 
length, at one run.* 

'' Two good locomotives coupled together be- 
hind the plow, managed properly, will remove any 
snow which it is advisable to buck. Snow drifts 
which are higher than the plow cannot be cleared 
from the track successfully without first shovel- 
ing the snow off the top of the drift, except 
when the drift is very short. Where the top of 
the snow drift is shoveled off, it should be opened 
wide enough to allow the plow to throw out of 
the cut the snow left in it. On roads where a 
flanger is used and made to pull behind an engine 
on a train, it should be sent with the snow plow 

*0n account of the invention of the rotary snow plows it is 
not likely that snow plowing with a plow on the front of a loco- 
motive will be done to any great extent in the future, especially 
where cuts are deep and long and snow is hard. But when the 
snow is soft and not too deep on the track the old way of getting 
rid of it is still apt to be practiced. 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 471 

helper and used to clean out the snow left be- 
tween the track rails by the snow plow. When 
the snow is reported hard, those in charge of 
snow plow outfits should be very careful to have 
their engines and plow in as perfect condition 
as possible. They should run no risk; every snow 
drift should be examined before running into it, 
and each end should be shoveled out enough to 
leave a clean flangeway and a face that would 
let the plow enter under the snow and keep it 
down upon the rails. The tendency of hard snow 
is to lift the plow up over the top of the drift 
and throw the engine off the track. Whenever 
the euds of the drifts are not faced as before 
mentioned there is always great danger when 
entering or leaving short, shallow drifts of hard 
snow, while, on the contrary, there is little or no 
danger in plowing soft deep snow at the greatest 
speed the engine can make. 

''The engines with a snow plow outfit should 
always take on water and fuel to their full 
capacity at every point on the road where a sup- 
ply can be obtained, no matter whether it is 
tiable to be used or not. When it is at all prob- 
able that progress will be slow on account of 
hard or deep snow, a car loaded with coal should 
be taken along by the helper engine. If there is 
plenty of snow the supply of water can easily be 
made in the engine tanks by commencing to 
shovel snow into them before they are more than 
half empty. 

''Every snow plow, engine and helper engine 
should be supplied with a piece of steam hose 



472 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

which can be attached to the syphon cock and 
reach from it to the water hole in the back of 
the tank. With this hose an engine steaming 
well can quickly make a full tank of water from 
snow shoveled into the tank. It is also useful to 
thaw out the machinery or clean the track rails 
of ice. 

''In plowing snow the length of runs and the 
speed of the engine should always be in propor- 
tion to the depth and length of the snow drifts. 
If the drifts are deep and long and likely to stick 
the plow, a good long run should be taken on the 
clear track so that the plow engine may acquire 
its greatest speed before striking the drift. A 
good engineer who has had some practice in 
bucking snow will so handle his engine that very 
little shoveling by the men will be needed. 

''It is not advisable to start out on the road 
with a snow plow outfit during a heavy storm, 
but everything should be ready to make a start 
as soon as the storm is over. The snow plow 
should be attached to the best and heaviest en- 
gine in service on the division where it is used. 

"The man in charge of a snow plow outfit 
should use his best judgment and have his wits 
about him at all times, that he may not be caught 
on the road with a dead engine or be wrecked, and 
block the road for other trains. It is much bet- 
ter for the Company's interests and those of all 
others concerned when all accidents are avoided, 
even should it take much longer time to open up 
the road. 

"The engineer of the snow plow engine should 
sound the whistle frequently when approaching 



MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 473 

a cut, so that section men if working there will 
be warned in time to get out of the cut. When 
the snow plow is making repeated runs for a big 
snow drift, the signal to come ahead should never 
be given until all the snow shovelers have left 
the cut. It is very difficult for men to climb out 
of a cut where the snow is deep, and many acci- 
dents have occurred where approaching trains 
have failed to warn the men in time, or where 
the men have neglected to look out for the dan- 
ger until it was too late. If the men with the 
snow plow are always on the alert and careful 
and conscientious in the discharge of their duties, 
the safety of all concerned will be assured and 
the work will progress rapidly. 

" When a snow drift is so long and deep that 
it may stick the snow plow twice, the best policy 
is to shovel out snow enough from the approach 
end of the drift to enable the snow plow to go 
through in the second run. In this way the labor 
of digging out the engine a second time may be 
avoided. 

"All very hard snow should be broken up by 
the men and the crust thrown out before striking 
it with a snow plow. The shock felt when a 
snow plow vStrikes a hard drift is sometimes very 
great and often damages the machinery or knocks 
the plow from the track. The force of concus- 
sion may be materially lessened by having the 
men clean a good flange way, and then shovel 
out of the face and top of the drift enough snow 
to make a gradual incline of about one foot to 
the rod. Besides reducing the force of the shock 



474 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

the above method of preparing a hard snow drift 
enables the snow plow to open a much greater 
distance at a run.* 

Snow Plows. The Rotary snow plow is illus- 
trated by Fig. 344. The leading features of the 
* Rotary' are: 

1. The machinery of the Rotary is much 
simpler, very much stronger, and is better ad- 
apted for the work it has to perform than that 
of any other steam snow plow or excavator. 

2. The machinery of the Rotary is underneath 
the floor of the pilot house and cab, and is se- 
curely fastened to the extra heavy steel and iron 
frame which carries the machine, and is so cov- 
ered with iron plates as to secure absolute safety 
to those operating it. 

3. Owing to the perfect mechanical principles 
upon which the Rotary is constructed, its weight 
is properly distributed over its trucks and varies 
but a few thousand pounds when in working order. 

4. The Rotary is the only steam snow plow 
which has a perfect working ice cutter and 
flanger which will absolutely protect it from de- 
railment by snow or ice. 

5. The Rotary is the only steam snow plow 
which cuts the snow from the bank and dis- 
charges the same at a single revolution. 

6. The Rotary is the only steam snow plow 
ever operated which has not spread the rails and 
broken down bridges, and is consequently the 
only steam snow plow which can be run out 
ahead of trains with safety. 

***The Trackman's Helper." Kindelan, pp. 240-253. 



MAINTENAI^GE OF WAT. 



475 




O 

CO o 

< 
o 



476 BUILDING AND REPjURING RAILWAYS. 

Seasons^ Work. "As to the seasons for doing 
the different kinds of work, it may be said that 
general improvements, tile drainage, reballasting, 
etc., can best be carried on from late spring to 
late autumn, but all such work should, as far as 
possible, be planned and arranged for beforehand, 
so that the track may not be disturbed for re- 
ballasting just after the section gang has com- 
pleted a thorough surfacing. Work trains and 
floating gangs for ditching, ballasting, widening 
cuts, etc., and special gangs on new interlocking 
plants, rearrangement of yards, repairing or 
building structures, etc., may be worked at any 
time from the end of one winter to the beginning 
of another. For the ordinary work on the sec- 
tions no set rules or program of procedure can 
be formulated, as the requirements vary in dif- 
ferent sections of the country. In general, how- 
ever, the year may be divided into four seasons, 
and the work done during these seasons prac- 
tically as outlined below: 

Spring. "As soon as the winter is over, all 
likelihood of snow past, and the frost coming 
out of the ground, the work of reducing and re- 
moving the shims should be commenced. The 
frost will, of course, remain longer in the road- 
bed in cuts than on exposed banks. Low joints 
must be raised, spikes driven, bolts tightened, 
cattle guards and road crossings cleared and re- 
paired, ditches cleaned, fences repaired, portable 
snow fences taken down and piled, rubbish and 
old material cleared from the right of way, and 
the necessary lining and surfacing done to put 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 4.77 

the track in good condition previous to the more 
extensive work later in the season. At the same 
time sign posts and telegraph poles are straight- 
ened, fences repaired, and side tracks and yards 
overhauled. The gang (if not already increased) 
is then increased to its maximum number and 
the work of renewing ties is commenced, the 
ties having been previously distributed on the 
section. About four days a week should be spent 
in putting in the ties, all ties being fully tamped 
as soon as they are in place. The other two days 
are spent on other necessary work. On some 
roads the tie renewals are done quickly at the 
beginning of the season, while on others this 
work is spread out through the season. The 
former is by far the better plan, as the continued 
disturbance resulting from the latter plan is very 
detrimental to the maintenance of good track. 
When the ties are all in, the work of thorough 
lining and surfacing preparatory for the heavy 
summer traffic is commenced. The lining is done 
first on account of the bad line resulting from 
the tie renewals, but the surfacing should follow 
very closely. The gauging is done at the same 
time. Ballasting is done after the new ties have 
been put in. In surfacing, care must be taken 
not to raise the track too much, but only to give 
a uniform surface, the track being raised out of 
a face only about once in four or five years. 

Sumrner. " Besides the work of surfacing, rail 
renewals may be done at any convenient time 
between spring and winter. The new rails are 
sometimes laid before the ties are renewed, but 



478 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

it is better to put the ties in first and have them 
thoroughly tamped up, especially if there are 
many bad ties. A general inspection of spikes, 
bolts, nuts and nutlocks is then to be made. All 
worn, bent, broken or improperly driven spikes 
are removed, the holes plugged, and new spikes 
are driven. Broken or loose bolts are made good. 
Switches and switch connections, frogs, guard 
rails, etc., need to be carefully inspected and re- 
paired. As fast as the regular surfacing is com- 
pleted, the ballast should be dressed to the stan- 
dard cross-section, and the toe of slope lined to 
a * grass line' about 5 feet 6 inches from the 
rail. Tile drainage, correction of signs, and 
general work not interfering with the track itself 
can best be done during the summer. Spare 
time can also be spent in trimming up yard 
tracks, and clearing yards and station grounds. 

Autumn. ''Weeds should be cut at least once 
a year and the best time for this is just before 
seeding. The grass on the right of way should 
be mowed, bushes cleared and trimmed, and in 
cases where fires cause trouble, a fire guard may be 
formed by plowing a narrow strip about 50 feet 
on each side from the track. Burnt or decayed 
trees likely to fall near the track should also be re- 
moved, and the dry brush, old ties, etc., may now 
be burned. Old material should also be cleared 
up. About a month before the commencement 
of the winter or rainy season, a general surfacing, 
lining, gauging and dressing of the track should 
be done starting at the farther end of the section 
and working steadily to the other end. The 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 479 

track itself should be put in condition at the 
same time and the spikes and joints seen to. 
When this is done ditching must be undertaken, 
the ditches being cleaned out and improved 
where necessary to give the necessary width and 
grade. The more thoroughly this work is done 
the better will the track be during the winter. 
Trenches should also be cut under switch rods to 
prevent water or snow collecting around them 
and freezing. The culverts and waterways must 
then be cleared of brush and obstructions, and 
any signs of scour or undermining looked for, while 
streams should be examined above and below the 
culverts and any obstructions removed. After this 
there is plenty of work to be done in cutting 
and burning weeds, repairing fences, repairing 
and erecting snow fences, and stacking additional 
portable snow fences where they will be needed. 
Track signs and telegraph poles have to be in- 
spected and cattle guards and crossings cleaned 
up. Yards and side tracks may be profitably 
cleaned, drained, leveled up and repaired before 
the snow falls. 

Winter. ''The winter work with reduced track 
forces is largely that of inspecting the track and 
making small repairs; also looking after the 
spikes, bolts, frogs and switches. Such work will 
occupy the time between snow storms or in fine 
weather. During snow storms the switches, frogs 
and guard rail flangeways must be kept clear 
as also all signal and interlocking. connections. 
Salt is used to melt the snow but oil afterwards 
should be applied to all moving parts, such as slide 



480 BUILDING AND REPAIRINO RAILWAYS. 

plates, bell crank levers, etc., as the salt water 
has a tendency to rust the iron, making the parts 
move hard. In heavy snow storms the section men 
must work in clearing the track and help the 
snow gang or shovelers. In the intervals of fine 
weather rails, ties, lumber, fence material, etc., 
may be distributed, ready for spring work. Heav- 
ing of the track by frost has now to be expected, 
and proper precautions must be taken to keep 
the track in surface by shimming, while in very 
bad places blocking may be necessary. The 
ditches should be examined as soon as any thaw 
sets in, and kept clear of ice or packed snow, so 
as to allow free passage for the water."* 

Changing Rails. On roads having heavy traffic, 
it is customary to change rails on Sundays, pre- 
paring the track on week days. On roads with 
light traffic, rails can be changed at any time. 
One side of the track should be changed at a time. 

Preparijig Track Material for Sunday Work. 
Rails and splices generally require to be filed 
on the ends to a uniform surface, so as to remove 
projections; this work is therefore included in 
preparing the track, though properly speaking it 
should be done at the mill. The following is the 
organization of men for such work, namely: The 
first thing to be done is to put four men on the 
car of splices, two on each end, to file and inspect 
the splices, each man having a small bench to lay 
the splice on to facilitate the filing; after they 
are filed they should be thrown on a car, laying 
them at right angles to each other the full length 
of the splice; this will facilitate their being 

^''Railway Track and Track Work." Tratman, pp. 288-289. 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY, 481 

counted. When the men have sufficient room on 
the car they are filing on, they should pile the 
splices behind them in like manner. Rails, 
splices, bolts, nut locks and plugs should be dis- 
tributed at the same time as the rails. It is neces- 
sary, however, to have half of the cars which are 
loaded with rails turned on a turntable or Y 
block to admit of their being unloaded, with the 
brand on the outside of the rails as they will be 
put in the track. 

Unloading Rails. Care should be exercised in 
unloading rails. Rails, on gondola cars espe- 
cially, should be let down to the ground on skids, 
and each skid should be provided with a pulley 
on the upper end, placed below its surface; a 
rope with a hook sufficiently large to receive a 
rail should be used through this pulley for lower- 
ing the rails to the ground; each skid should be 
provided at its lower end with a round iron pro- 
jection, around which the rope is turned for the 
purpose of controlling the rails while being low- 
ered. Two men on the ground, operating the 
ropes raise the hooks to the upper end of the 
skids, when one foreman and twelve men (hand- 
ling seventy-six-pound rails) will place the rail 
in the hooks and lower the same to the ground. 
The first named two men, in addition to lowering 
these rails, will lift the skids as the car is moved 
ahead. On another car are the rails for the other 
side of the track, the men being similarly organ- 
ized. Unloading a rail on each side prevents 
moving the train so often and obviates the men 
passing from one car to another. Time may be 
saved by unloading two rails from each car be- 
fore moving the train ahead, unloading the next 
two rails one rail length ahead of the last two. 

27 Vol. 13 



482 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 

Two men on the splice car will distribute the 
splices, bolts and nut locks, and two men with a 
basket will distribute the plugs from the supply 
car. 

Filing Rails, Etc. As soon as the rails are un- 
loaded, men should be set at work to file the 
ends of the rails underneath the heads and up- 
per side of the base. After the rails are unloaded, 
the men should be organized as follows, namely: 
One foreman and eight men with tongs should 
string the rails along the outer edge of the ties; 
one man with an adze should level any project- 
ing ends of same, and one man should tack-spike 
all unspliced ends of each four rails. For six- 
bolted splices, six men should bolt the rails and 
lay the splices, bolts and nut locks at each un- 
spliced end. Four men should remove all the 
bolts that can be removed with safety from the 
rails in the track; these men should also put the 
nut locks, or washers and nuts, on each bolt as it 
is removed. Four men should pull the spikes 
that can be pulled with safety, those remaining 
being left slightly started. On tangents, four 
spikes to each rail are sufficient to leave unpuUed, 
leaving one of these spikes at each joint; on 
curves, six spikes to the rail should be left, and 
one in the slot hole. These spikes should be 
pulled on the inside when the same sized rails 
are to be used, and when of different base, the in- 
side of one rail and outside of the other should 
be pulled, which will admit of their being laid 
retaining the same gauge. When pulling spikes 
on curves, they should be pulled on the side hav- 
ing the ties cut down the least, which will more 
readily admit of ties being adzed. Four men 
should be at work score-adzing each tie on the 



MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 483 

side from which the spikes are removed, keeping 
well on the outside of the spikes. As each sub- 
gang finishes its work, it should clear the ballast 
between the ties and underneath the rails; the 
other foreman should look after the sub-gangs, 
except rail stringers. Two boys should be en- 
gaged in carrying water for the men. In all, 
forty men will prepare in the above manner one 
mile of track per day. On double track, one 
track should be used to distribute from, allowing 
schedule trains to pass on the other, flagging all 
other trains and allowing them to pass as they 
arrive.* 

Jointing Rails. As it is impossible to change 
rails and have them joint on the old ties, it is 
necessary that these ties be changed to admit of 
the slot holes being spiked, and thus prevent the 
rails from running. 

Moving Old Track. Improvements of line, 
especially double tracking, when the old line is 
being improved at the same time, render it neces- 
sary to either take up and relay the old track or 
move it over to the new line. When the change 

* Gang for Changing Rails on Sunday.— The same gang of 
men that prepared the track at the rate of one mile per day will 
change the rails at the same rate, organized as follows, namely; 

Men removing bolts 4 

Men throwing out rails 2 

Men adzing ties 13 

Men spiking rails, joint slot holes, quarters and centers 4 

Foremen 2 

Men pulling spikes 4 

Men plugging spike holes 2 

Man guiding and testing adzing with single-headed spotting 

boards with face one-half inch broad 1 

Water boys 2 

As adzing is more or less on account of ties being cut into, 
these men will require to be increased or diminished accord- 
ingly. The remainder of the spiking can be done by this gang 
the next day, as well as tamping up all ties that are loose or low, 
especially the joint ties. They should also go over all bolts with 
wrenches and tighten them up. 



484 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

of line is within twenty feet throw, it is cheaper 
to move the track than to take it up and relay. 
This work, like changing rails, is usually done on 
Sundays. It is, however, possible to be done in 
the week, if there is an occasional half hour or so 
between trains. It requires skill and scientific 
ability. 

Proper Care of Engineers^ Stakes. Grade 
stakes set by engineers for top of rail for new 
line should be set so as to be clear of the track 
when it is being moved to place. If, however, 
the same grade is to be retained, the foreman in 
charge should put two intelligent men to trans- 
ferring the level of the lower rail, using a long 
straight edge and track level for this purpose. 
The engineers' center line stakes are liable to be 
in different positions relative to the old track to 
be moved, necessitating the latter passing over 
these stakes in many cases. In order to obviate 
as much as possible the liability of their being 
moved, they should be driven sufficiently low to 
clear the bottom of the rail. Another manner of 
dealing with these stakes is to pull the spikes out 
of each tie surrounding the same, so as to allow 
of the track being moved and leave those ties un- 
touched. This, however entails considerable ex- 
pense. Another manner of dealing with these 
stakes is to transfer them so as to be entirely 
clear of the track when moving. Too great care 
cannot be taken with these stakes, in order to 
facilitate the lining and surfacing of the track so 
changed. 

Preparing Track for Sunday Work. The bed 
for the track on a new line should be ballasted 
and leveled off on tangents, and elevated on 
curves so that the bed will be within two inches 



MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 435 

of the bottom of the ties. It is necessary to pre- 
pare this bed with more than ordinary care, so 
that when the track is moved over to its new 
position trains can be allowed to pass with- 
out the necessity of holding them until the 
track is tamped. All trains, however should 
run slowly over this track. When old track is to 
be thrown entirely clear of the old bed, it is not 
necessary to dig it out between the ties, but only 
to loosen it up with a pick, so as to make it 
easier to throw. This loosening might be omit- 
ted, but in that case it would take half as many 
more men to pull the track out of the old bed. 
If old track is to be thrown less than the length 
of a tie, the part occupying the old bed should be 
dug out slightly below the bed of the ties, and 
the remainder loosened with a pick. This being 
done, the track is ready to be thrown. 

Moving the Track on Sunday, It is neces- 
sary that good judgment be used in determining 
what amount of track can be moved to allow ne- 
cessary trains to pass without being held, and 
also to determine the proper place to cut the 
track so as to prevent the necessity of pulling it 
longitudinally more than one foot each way. The 
men may be divided into sub-gangs of not more 
than thirty men with two foremen each, and a 
certain piece of track allotted to them. This 
number of men will admit of being divided, us- 
ing one gang behind the other in throwing the 
track, or have one surfacing while the other is 
finishing the lining and surfacing later. When 
throwing the track it should not be moved more 
than twelve inches at any time; this saves the 
rails and splices and prevents twisting the ties. 
Rail cuts, to allow for expansion or contraction, 



486 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

should be at the center of curves, or at as many 
more places as the degree of the curve and dis- 
tance to be thrown render necessary. Not less 
than six men should be placed at each cut, so as 
to employ three in cutting rails and three drill- 
ing; they should first remove the splices from 
two joints, one on each rail, and pull the spikes 
on the sides opposite to which the track is thrown 
so that the ties will be taken along as the track is 
moved. In order to pass trains after curves have 
been moved, the line should be changed on the 
tangents by reversed curve. When the track is 
in place, two men in each gang with sledge ham- 
mers should be put at work tapping the ties to 
proper space and square to the rail. Track in 
cinder may be tamped only with shovels and 
tamped with bars later, after it has consolidated. 
To Move Track During the Week. After the 
track is prepared, it is necessary to know how 
much shorter or longer it wall be when moved. 
This can be ascertained by setting temporary 
stakes. They should be placed on the line of 
rail where its position will be when changed, 
measuring along this new line to the similar 
rail of the old track, after which this latter 
rail should be measured between the same points; 
thus the difference between them is obtained. 
This can only be done correctly by using a steel 
tape. When moving track during warm weather, 
the track to be changed should be first exam- 
ined, and for every tight or close joint one- 
eighth inch allow^ed for expansion; the sum of 
these ^allowances must be taken into considera- 
tion in ascertaining the difference between the 
two rails. The rails should then be cut and 
drilled ready for use. When the time selected 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 487 

to make the change arrives, and the last sched- 
ule train has passed, gangs should begin to 
throw the track, always throwing toward the 
point or points cut loose. As soon as the throw- 
ing of the track is started, the rails at these 
points are replaced by those already cut. When 
the track is finally thrown to position, the ends 
can be spliced and bolted. 

Policing. ''This work includes the general 
maintenance of the roadway in neat and proper 
condition, and is to be attended to continually. 
Weeds must be kept cut and trimmed to the grass- 
line; ballast properly dressed and sloped; ditches 
cleaned; rubbish picked up, and spare mate- 
rial properly placed. Combustible material must 
be kept cleared from around bridges, trestles, 
signal posts, etc., dirt and gravel must be re- 
moved from bridge seats and trestle caps, and 
care taken to prevent ballast from working over 
onto the bridge abutments or falling into streets 
below. Large loose stones may be neatly piled 
around the bases of signal posts, sign posts, etc., 
to keep vegetation from growing. All trees that 
are in danger of falling on the track, or that in- 
terfere with the passage of trains, or obscure the 
view must be removed or trimmed. If they are 
on private land, and the owners object to such 
work, a report must be made as to the circum- 
stances. Any interference with or obstruction 
of ditches, culverts, etc., by land owners must be 
prevented or a report made thereon. 

'*A11 old track material, links and pins, or 
other material from cars, old ties, rubbish, etc., 
must be picked up and removed from the track, 



488 BUILDING AND REPAIBINO RAILWAYS. 

all scrap being carried to the section tool house 
to be properly sorted and properly disposed of. 
All scrap iron, lumber, etc., must be neatly piled 
on platforms. New material, such as rails, ties, 
etc., must be properly piled or stacked, and no 
material should be thus piled within eight feet of 
the track. 

'' Care should be taken to have a neat and tidy 
appearance of the section, with track full spiked 
and bolted, switches cleaned and well oiled, 
cattle guards and road crossings in good condi- 
tion, fences in repair and wing fences at cattle 
guards kept whitewashed, ballast evenly and 
uniformly sloped and free from weeds, sod line 
cleanly cut at foot of slopes, and grass and weeds 
not allowed to grow too high before cutting. 
Side tracks in yards should also be kept free 
from weeds and rubbish, old paper, scrap, etc. 
Station grounds also must be kept neat. Signs 
must be upright and in good repair. Section 
houses must be clean and tidy with tools, track 
material, scrap, etc., properly sorted and placed. 

''Every possible means, consistent with gen- 
eral attention to track work, should be taken to 
keep people from walking on or at the side of 
the track, and from using the railway as a public 
path. This is specially necessary near cities 
where the traffic is heavy. In such cases where 
people habitually walk on the track, a liberal 
covering of coarse broken stone or slag, or even 
cinders may be laid upon the ballast between the 
rails and tracks and upon the berme at the edge 
of the roadway. This will soon drive off those 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 489 

persons who cannot comfortably walk on the ties. 
This matter is far too often neglected, and rail- 
ways are themselves partly responsible for the 
habit which the public has acquired of treating 
the tracks as a public way. 

Station Grounds and Buildings. ''In order to 
have a good reputation for the road on the part 
of the public, it is very desirable that the grounds 
at stations should be kept clean and tidy and free 
from rubbish. On some roads this work is dele- 
gated to the station agent, who has his men 
attend to it, while on other roads it is part of the 
section gang's work. The latter is the better 
plan if the force is sufficient and the work is done 
by direction of the roadmaster, the station agent 
not being given authority to employ the section 
men for this purpose when he thinks proper. On 
roads having stations with lawns, flower beds and 
nice grounds, a special force is sometimes kept to 
attend to them. For instance the Boston and 
Albany Railway has on each of its principal di- 
visions a gardener with 5 to 12 men who grade, 
plant and seed the grounds, and take care of 
them. These men cut the grass with lawn 
mowers and do the weeding, trimming of shrub- 
bery, etc. They also attend to places where the 
banks are graded and seeded. This force is in- 
cluded in the roadway department. The Penn- 
sylvania Railway also employs landscape en- 
gineers and a large force of gardeners and spends 
large sums of money in making and maintaining 
attractive grounds. As a result it has a reputa- 
tion for the appearance of its stations. Some 



490 BUILDING AND EEFAIMING BAILWAYS. 

western roads including the Fremont, Elkhorn & 
Missouri Valley Railway have adopted the policy 
of making a 'park" at most of the stations, sod- 
ding the ground and planting trees. It is speci- 
ally important to have attractive grounds and 
pleasant surroundings at important stations and 
at junctions where passengers may have to 
change trains or to stop over for connecting 
trains. 

''In all ordinary cases, however, much may be 
done by foremen and station agents who are not 
, averse to putting in a little time in improving the 
appearance of the station grounds. The agent 
especially should see that the grounds and plat- 
forms are kept free from old papers and other 
rubbish. A plot of turf, cinder or gravel path- 
way, a flowerbed, a creeper on the building or on 
a pile of rock work, can be had with little trouble 
and have a great effect upon the general appear- 
ance of a station. The approaches and surround- 
ings on the town side of the station should be 
cared for as well as the grounds on the railway 
side. The platforms should be convenient and in 
good repair and the fences kept in repair. Many 
a division superintendent and roadmaster can aid 
materially in maintaining a good appearance along 
the road by fitting up a car with brake pumps 
and paint tanks for painting by compressed air, 
the Avork being done rapidly and economically by 
a few men, and being applicable to stations, 
freight-sheds, ice-houses, pump houses, section 
houses, signal houses, signal towers, cabins, sta- 
tion fences, signal posts, and signs, etc., and also 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 491 

for white wnshing cattle guard fences, interior of 
sheds, etc. 

'They aids, spaces between the tracks, etc. at 
stations should be neatly leveled, and covered 
with ashes, and should be kept in order by the 
section men, but strict rules should be made and 
enforced against the scattering of ashes and cin- 
ders from engines (which should be dumped at 
specified points) the sweeping of rubbish and dirt 
from the station onto the track, and the sweep- 
ing out of refuse and dirt from the cars upon the 
track. Every station should have a can or bin 
for waste paper and rubbish which should be 
emptied at intervals into a dirt car; similar re- 
ceptacles should be provided at yards or places 
where cars are cleaned. At large terminal yards 
one man may be kept busy cleaning up paper 
and rubbish. It is a good plan to have station 
inspectors to see that the stations, waiting rooms, 
closets, etc., are kept in proper and sanitary con- 
dition, and that the grounds are properly cared 
for. Cleanliness should be enforced in every 
case, but the standard of appearance will, of 
course, vary according to the financial condition 
of the road and the size of the force. The same 
is true of section boarding houses and tool 
houses. 

Old Material, "In all renewals and the period- 
ical policing of the track, cleaning up of yards, 
etc., it must be borne in mind that new material 
must be properly used and cared for, and not 
wasted, and also that no old material should be 
simply thrown away as useless. Even if really 



492 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 

useless for railway purposes, the material in the 
aggregate has a certain selling value, which, if 
the material is thrown away, is wrongfully lost 
to the Company. These remarks apply also to 
the wreckage and scrap resulting from train acci- 
dents and the burning of cars. Record must be 
kept of the disposal of all scrap and old material. 
'*01d rails should not be left hidden in the 
grass and weeds of the right of way, but properly 
piled for shipment as they may be used for side 
tracks or branches, sold for scrap, or even made 
into new rails of somewhat lighter section by 
heating and rerolling. Old ties have rarely much 
value, but if thrown away, sold, burnt, used for 
cribbing, etc., all unbroken spikes should first be 
pulled, and when ties are burned the ashes 
should be raked over for spikes. In piling old 
rails, the splice bars and bolts should all be re- 
moved, good splice bars sorted in pairs and 
broken bars kept separate. Nuts and bolts, if 
good, should be kept together, but broken bolts 
should have the nuts removed and kept separate. 
Many spikes that now go from the track to the 
scrap heap (or down the bank) might be used 
over again if properly driven in the first place 
and properly drawn. Foremen should be careful 
to see that all track and car material, etc., is 
picked up regularly and that their men do not get 
in the habit of flinging old bolts, spikes, etc., down 
the bank. In removing bolts, the nuts should be 
unscrewed properly, the bolt taken out, and the 
lock and nut put back on the bolt. If, however, 
the nut is so rusted or wedged on the bolt that 



MAINTENANCE OF WAT, 493 

it will not unscrew, it is more economical to 
knock off the nut with the end of bolt in it, with 
a sledge, than to waste time in forcing the 
wrench. Only good discipline and good manage- 
ment of men can insure the exercise of proper 
judgment as to when to knock off nuts in this 
way. If a wedge or rusted bolt has to be knocked 
out, care should be taken not to hit the head of 
the rail. 

''At the section tool house the scrap should be 
piled and sorted (as described under 'Policing') 
nuts taken off broken bolts, etc., this work being 
done in wet or stormy weather or when the men 
cannot work on the track. All scrap iron, lum- 
ber, etc., must be piled neatly on platforms, car 
scrap, links, drawbars, couplers, etc., being kept 
separate. Small scrap, such as bolts, nuts and 
spikes, may be kept in shallow boxes or in old 
spike and bolt kegs. Rails may be piled on the 
right of way at mile posts, but should not be 
piled with splice bars and bolts left on. Old ties 
may be stacked on the right of way until per- 
mission is given to burn them, the ties removed 
being piled at the end of each day's work and 
not left in the ditch or on the roadbed. 

'' Under this heading it will be appropriate to 
refer to the treatment and disposal of the mate- 
rial found in the general scrap pile at the division 
points or main shops, which subject has been dis- 
cussed by Mr. J. N. Barr of the Chicago, Mil- 
waukee & St. Paul Railway in a paper before the 
Western Railway Club. The style of material 
delivered for the scrap pile is significant of the 



494 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 

character of the men sending it, as for instance 
one man who is somewhat careless and finds it 
easier to nse new material than to sort out the 
serviceable from the unserviceable scrap at his 
tool house, will send in many old bolts and nuts 
that are good for further use. In some cases it 
may be advisable to go to the expense of putting 
in a set of small rolls, to bring odd sizes of iron 
to standard sizes for bolts, plates, etc. ; a shear 
(perhaps operated by an airbrake cylinder with 
4 feet lever and 6 inch jaw) for cutting rods, or 
even to build a small furnace for heating angles, 
etc., to be rerolled. Of course it must be borne 
in mind that while with a single large scrap pile 
at one large central shop it may be economical 
to carefully sort and handle the material and 
treat it as above noted, this may not be the case 
with several smaller piles at divisional shops. 
Also, that in some cases an article made by treat- 
ing scrap may be more expensive than a newly 
purchased article of the same kind. These are 
matters for the exercise of judgment and cal- 
culation in order to insure real economy. 

*'In most scrap piles there is a great propor- 
tion of bolts. These may be sorted as to their 
diameters and length and stored in compart- 
ments. Stub ends of |-inch to 1-inch bolts, about 
b\ inches long, may be used for making track 
bolts, a bolt heading machine at the shops being 
equipped Avith suitable dies. Nuts may be cleaned 
of rust by pickling in a weak solution of hydro- 
chloric acid and then used again, or if damaged 
they may be slightly compressed by dies in a bolt 



MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 495 

heading machine and then retapped. Plates and 
shapes may be utilized for small plate girders 
to cross culverts, etc. Lining bars, crawbars, 
wrenches, etc., may be successfully made from 
scrap steel tires, and the slide plates for switches 
may be made from elliptic springs, the plate 
being heated to a cherry red and then put in a 
bulldozer, where it is sheared off and has two 
square holes punched at one operation. Old 
flues, which bring little as scrap, make good 
fencing for station grounds, posts for track signs, 
or grates for cinder pits, where fireboxes are 
cleaned out. Old fish plates or plain splice bars 
may be sheared to length and stamped to shape 
for rail braces. 

**In sorting, care should be taken to pick out 
any new or practically uninjured material which 
may, by accident, or carelessness have got in with 
the scrap. When sorted the stuff should be ar- 
ranged so as to be easily seen and got at, but dis- 
crimination should be exercised so as not to store 
a lot of miscellaneous material on the chance of 
its being of some possible use eventually."* 

Inspection. Inspection of tracks should be made 
daily by the track walker, twice a week by the 
section boss, and once a week by the roadmaster. 
Figs, 345 and 348 illustrate inspection cars suit- 
able for roadmasters, engineers, superintendents 
and others when examining track or other por- 
tions of the property distant from depots. The 
following is a description of a motor inspection 
car, designed for inspection purposes. 

* "Railway Track and Trackwork," Tratman, pp. 311-315. 



4v,^6 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 




Fig. 345. 

INSPECTION HAND CAR. 

Especially designed for light uses in track work; made as light as pos- 
sible, consistent with strength Two revolving chairs on front platform. 
Weight, with chairs, 470 lbs; without chairs, 390 lbs. Wheels, wood centre, 
light pattern, 22 inches diameter,- or 20-inch light steel, as desired. 

The car weighs about 300 pounds and can be 
quickly put on and removed from the rails by 
one man, being so arranged that it can be pushed 
about on one wheel by lifting up one end. 

Gasoline and an electric battery supply the 
motive power. The battery consists of a series 
of eight dry cells, which with proper care will 
run the car over 900 miles. 

To start the car is simply to turn on the gaso- 
line, move a lever which connects the battery 
with the cylinders — the work of but a few sec- 
onds. To stop — the gasoline and battery are 
turned off and the brakes applied. 

As it can be started in a few seconds, as fre- 
quent stops as desired can be made and no delay 



MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 497 




Fig. 348. 

DOUBLE OR FOUR- WHEELED MOTOR CAR, FOR INSPECTION 
PURPOSES. 

A variation of the Motor car is the double type. In this case two com- 
plete single three-wheeled motor cars are used, and after discarding the 
third wheel, together with the arm and brace rod, the two main frames are 
joined by a seat that runs across the front of both, containing ample room 
for four persons. Back of this, but between the two main frames, is a plat- 
form upon which a considerable amount of hand baggage or tools can be 
carried if desirable. At the rear of the car the two driving axles are united 
by a connecting shaft having universal couplings, by which means any pro- 
pelling impulse communicated to either of the rear drivers is received by 
both. There is also on each of the main frames a rear seat for an operator, 
making a capacity on the device for six persons. Each main frame having 
its full double engine, there is ample power for use of the car with its full 
load under all ordinary circumstances. 

These double cars are so arranged that they can be disconnected at any 
time and used as two three- wheeled cars. 

experienced when ready to proceed. A speed of 
over thirty miles an hour can be developed on a 
straight level track, so that the car affords a quick 
and satisfactory means of getting over the ground. 
The speed is always under the control of the 
operator, and the car can be run as fast or as slow 
as desired. It is inexpensive to operate. A gal- 
lon of gasoline will ordinarily run the car over 
seventy-five miles. Provision is made for carry- 
ing with the car four gallons, or sufficient for a 
run of about 300 miles. It will carry three per- 
sons; the operator who sits in the rear, and two 
passengers on the front seat, which is shown open 
in the cut, but which folds up for convenience 
when not in use. 

28 Vol. 13 



498 BUILDING AND BE PAIRING BAILWAY8. 

On some railroad systems there is an annua] 
inspection, this generally is done in the Fall. 
This inspection covers track and the property 
generally. 

''The annual inspection of the Wabash Rail- 
way is conducted to determine the condition of 
each section and division of main track and sid- 
ings, in the following particulars: 1, line and 
surface; 2, level; 3, joints, ties and switches in 
the main track; 4, drainage; 5, policing; 6, sid- 
ing (meaning all tracks outside of the main track, 
and these must be inspected, marked and kept 
separately from markings on main track). These 
conditions shall be determined by a system of 
marking for every mile of road; 10 shall indicate 
perfection ; 5 shall indicate a condition unsafe 
for a speed of 25 miles per hour, and the worst 
possible condition, intermediate numbers being 
used to indicate intermediate conditions. 

"The annual report shall show the total ex- 
pense for labor for the year on each mile of main 
track, and each mile of side track, the rating 
being determined as hereinafter set forth. The 
yard sections shall be classified together for the 
first and second premiums the same as the dis- 
tricts. 

''The final rating of each section, for classifica- 
tion, shall be made as follows: The conditions 
noted under the markings Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 
shall be reduced to an average rating, which, in 
a column of the report shall represent the gen- 
eral average for conditions noted on main track. 
The general average of conditions under marking 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 499 

No. 6 in its column, will indicate the general 
average of conditions noted on all sidings. 

" Sections having iron rail shall be allowed one 
point over steel rail, sections having steel rail in 
service eight years and upwards, half a point, 
provided this difference does not increase the re- 
sult above 10. This point will be added to final 
average and will not be noted by the inspectors. 
The sections on each division roadmaster's ter- 
ritory showing the highest general average shall 
be rewarded by a premium of $35.00 to the sec- 
tion foreman and the second highest average by 
$25.00. 

*'l. Line. — True line means straight line on 
tangents and uniform curvature on curves so far 
as the eye can detect. When these requirements 
are fulfilled the condition must be represented 
by 10. 

''Continuous and very apparent deviations from 
the true alignment over the entire length of one 
mile, w^hich would limit the maximum speed for 
the safe passage of trains to 25 miles per hour, 
must be represented by 5. A condition of align- 
ment which would be difl3.cult for a train to pass, 
should be recorded as 0. 

''Conditions intermediate between those de- 
scribed above shall be indicated in the proper 
ratio representing these conditions. 

"Surface. True surface means a uniform grade 
line between changes of grade, and the conditions 
must be noted as in regard to line. 

"2. Level. The inspector must watch the 
level index and must note unusual oscillations of 



500 BUILDING AND BE PAIRING RAILWAYS, 

the car due to imlevel track on tangents, want of 
uniformity of elevation on curves, or unequal 
gauge. 

''If the inspector can detect no vibration or 
oscillation of the car due to unlevel track on 
tangents, and want of uniformity on elevation of 
curves, he will record the condition as 10 and in- 
termediate conditions must be recorded as 
already noted. 

''3. Joints, ties and switches. A perfect joint 
is one that is fully bolted and tight. Ties must 
be properly spaced as per standard plan, and fully 
spiked with four spikes in each tie. Ends of ties, 
one side must be parallel with rail. Switches 
must be placed exactly as shown in standard 
specifications. When these are fulfilled the con- 
dition must be represented by 10 and intermedi- 
ate conditions recorded as already noted. 

'%, Drainage. The ditches shall be uniform 
and free from obstruction, and with sufficient in- 
cline to afford proper drainage. Ballast should 
be uniform and equally distributed. Any condi- 
tion less than described in the foregoing will be 
represented by such fraction of 10 as it bears to 
the required condition. 

''5. Policing. This shall consist of the follow- 
ing items, and a perfect condition in all these re- 
spects shall be represented by a marking of 10. 

''A. Cross ties and iron must be piled accord- 
ing to the general rules. 

'' B. Grass, bushes and weeds should be kept 
cut close to the ground within limits of right of 
way, and not allowed to grow closer than within 



MAINTENANCE OF WAT, 501 

6 feet of the rails. Stumps and logs should be 
cleared from within limits of right of way. 

''C. Road crossings must be in accordance 
with standard plans and must be clear and safe 
for the passage of animals and vehicles. 

''D. Signs must be placed in position as re- 
quired in standard clearance diagram. 

''E. Cross and line fences shall be kept in re- 
pair after being constructed by fence gang. They 
shall be of standard plans. Cross fences and 
cattle guards shall be clear of all grass and weeds, 
and shall be whitewashed. 

''Any conditions less than prescribed in fore- 
going subdivisions will be represented by such 
fraction of 10 as it bears to the required condi- 
tion. 

''Expense. The section which is maintained at 
the least expense shall receive 10 points. The 
amount of expense on each section to be deter- 
mined as follows: From the aggregate expense 
of the year shall be deducted the cost for extra 
work, such as placing ties, rails, ballast and ditch- 
ing for which credit will be made as follows: Ties 
in rock ballast credited at 20 cents per tie; ties 
in gravel, cinder or earth ballast 8 cents per tie; 
rock ballast credited at $2.50 per car; other bal- 
last at $1.00 per car; rail laid credited at $1.50 
per 100 feet, ditching at $1.00 per 100 feet. 
After this deduction is made the section show- 
ing the least expense will be marked 100, which, 
divided by 10, will give the rating of that section. 
For each additional $10.00 of expense over the 
lowest section for all other sections, deduct one 
point from 100 points, the remainder after being 



502 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

divided by 10 shall be the rating of that section 
regarding expenses on the general report, and 
shall be recorded as the average expense of all 
miles on that section. 

''The inspection committee snail consist of six 
or more persons or shall be arranged as shown on 
the accompanying form. (The form or card is 
9i inches long and 6 inches high with ten lines 
under the heading.) The general superintend- 
ent will assign duties to inspectors on the day of 
inspection. The placing of different members of 
general committee on the several sub-commit- 
tees will be performed by the officer in charge of 
inspection. Each member of these committees 
will be furnished with a form showing the condi- 
tions which he must note upon which he must 
indicate the rating of each mile. 

" The officer in charge of inspection shall take 
up all forms when rating has been placed thereon, 
and make a general report to the general superin- 
tendent showing the rating of all sections as 
hereinbefore described, showing the names of all 
persons entitled to a premium. The general 
superintendent will then cause the awards to be 
made, and have signs placed on sections to which 
premiums have been awarded, which will indi- 
cate the standing of that section on each subdi- 
vision. 

" The form of the report is as follows, being 
printed on sheets about 12 inches wide and 24 
inches high. The line of the first prize is printed 
in heavy faced type and that of the second prize 
in italics."* 

* " Railway Track and Track Work/' Tratman, pp. 337-340 



MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 



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504 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 







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CHAPTER IX. 

WRECKS. 

So long as human beings are fallible and the 
material with which they work falls short of per- 
fection, accidents will occur in the operation of 
the most scientifically constructed railroads. 
Hence every railway company, anticipating the 
inevitable, provides for the disaster that must 
sooner or later occur. To accomplish this there 
should be kept at each division headquarters a 
wrecking outfit consisting of a tool car and der- 
rick car. These cars should at all times be in 
charge of one competent man who should be a 
mechanic. He should have a list of the tools 
required and should see that they are all on hand 
and in first class condition for active service at 
any moment. There should be 15 to 20 men 
selected from the shop and yard force who can 
be used at wrecks. These men should hold them- 
selves ready to be called out at any time. Their 
duties should be assigned them when organizing 
the force; thus one should be an engineer capa- 
ble of handling a locomotive; two or three should 
be able to make all kinds of splices, hitches and 
knots with ropes; others should be familiar with 
the use of hydraulic and other jacks, etc. 

(505) 



506 



BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 



The following is a list of tools which should 
be kept on a wrecking or tool car: 



Heating stove. 

Hand saws. 

Axes. 

Adzes. 

Wheel gauge. 

Steel wrenches. 

Soft and chipping hammers. 

Track shovels. 

30-inch steel bars. 

12 torches. 

16-foot ladder. 

Assorted sizes drift bolts. 

Coupling links and pins. 

8-inch and 12-inch pony jacks. 

Standard frogs. 

Switch chains. 

Torpedoes. 

Portable stretcher. 

2 gallons alcohol. 

Packing hooks and spoons. 

12 grain sacks, 2-bushel. 

Water barrel. 

Cross-cut saws. 

Hand axes. 

Sledge hammers. 

12 and 15-in. monkey wrenches. 

Spike mauls. 

4-inch rolling line. 

Picks. 

1 pair of climbers. 



Scoop shovels. 

Pinch bars. 

Cold chisels. 

Clevises. 

4 pairs rubber boots. 

Pair patent frogs. 

Iron-bound wedges. 

Red flags. 

Red, white and green lanterns. 

Oil and waste for packing. 

6 baskets (grain) 2-bushel. 

6 water pails. 

Standard journal brasses for 
foreign cars. 

2 hydraulic lifting jacks, 15 
and 20 tons. 

2 ratchet lifting jacks and 
levers. 

A few hundred of spare 1-inch 
to 24-inch guy lines and 
snatch blocks. 

A small coil of telegraph wire 
and a few insulators and 
other telegraph supplies 
necessary to start an em- 
ergency office. 

A full set of edge tools, the 
personal property of the 
foreman of the wrecking 
crew. 



The following tools should be kept on the der- 
rick car: 

1 truck line, 2J inches diameter, 250 feet long. 

1 truck line, 2i inches diameter, 200 feet long. 

2 second-hand steel rails. 
4 iron bound wedges. 

6 switch chains. 

3 truck chains. 

2 wire cables, \\ inches diameter. 

A thirty-five ton steam wrecking crane is illus- 
trated by Fig. 349. Some roads, however, still 



WRECKS. 



507 




Fig. 349. 

35-TON STEAM WRECKING CRANE. 

Unusual stability is obtained by the powerful steel jack-arms which are 
hinged to base of A-frame. These jack-arms extend to a lateral base of 19' 
and are arranged to fold up when not in use. The car is also provided with 
two additional jacks and four rail clamps. Ample stability is obtained for 
all ordinary loads by means of jack-screws and rail clamps. It is only 
necessary to let down the jack-arms when heavy loads are to be lifted and 
swung to the side. For the lifting of the maximum load in extreme side 
positions, it is necessary to still further anchor the machine by means of side 
guys to the top of A-frame, and ring bolts are provided in the head for this 
purpose. 




Fig. 350. 

15-TON DOUBLE MAST HAND WRECKING CRANE. 



508 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 




Fig. 351. 

AUTOMATIC LOWERING JACK. 

This car repairing and wrecking jack is fast taking the place of the slow, 
cumbersome hydraulic jacks, for lightly loaded and empty cars, etc. It is 
more portable, more easily applied, and less liable to derangement, and in 
fact is in every way superior. It is stanch and tall. Forged steel raising 
rack for reaching under car beds and lifting same above obstruction. By 
means of its side lug it can g^-apple low set loads with equal facility. Lifts 
and lowers on downward stroke of lever only. The direction can be quickly 
reversed at will of operator. Height when rack is down, 28 inches; rise of 
lifting rack, 17^^ inches; size of forged steel rack, 2x1^ inches; weight,90 
pounds. 

use hand wrecking cranes. Fig. 350 represents a 
car equipped with two 15-ton hand cranes, though 
sometimes only one crane is placed on the der- 
rick car. A jack for lifting loads is shown in Fig. 
351. Fig. 353 illustrates a hydraulic jack capable 
of raising 30 to 40 tons. 

Various styles of wrecking frogs are illustrated 
by Figs. 354 to 356. 

When a wreck occurs the first duty of the offi- 
cer in charge of running trains is to order the 
wrecking train and crew and all available sec- 



WEECKS. 



509 





tiVAzv^f/jfr 



Fig. 353. 

DUDGEON'S HYDRAULIC JACK. 
Showing construction and names of parts. 

tion men to the scene. The first duty of a sec- 
tion foreman when he receives notice that there 
has been an accident and he is wanted there, is 
to collect his men and take his hand car and all 
his portable tools, even those which he thinks he 
is not likely to use. He should not go short of 
tools, expecting that the other foremen there will 
have enough. The other foremen may think the 
same, and valuable time will be lost by the want 
or forethought of both. The following specific 
directions are given to trackmen by an authority 
on the subject.* 

•^Kindelan, "The Trackman's Helper." 



510 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

*'When a track foreman arrives at the scene of 
the accident he should proceed immediately to 
do whatever work, in his judgment, would con- 
tribute most to putting the track in a passable 
condition for other trains, notwithstanding the 
absence of his superior officers, who may not be 




Fig. 354. 

TILDEN WRECKING FROG. 




Fig. 355. 

PALMERTON WRECKING FROG. 



WRECKS. 511 




Fig. 356. 

ELLIOT CAR REPLACERS OR WRECKING FROG 

able to reach the wreck for several hours. Tf the 
track is torn up and the cars do not interfere, put 
in ties enough to carry a train safely over 
v^here you can. If the rails are bent out of shape 
secure some from near by if it is possible. If this 
cannot be done, get as many as possible of the 
damaged rails to their proper shape and spiked 
down in the track. 

"li a small bridge or culvert has given way, 
crib it up with ties until you can cross it with 
track. If you cannot procure the ties along your 
section and many are not needed, remove a part 
of the ties from the track where it is full tied 
and where it will leave a sufficient number in 
the track to make it safe.for the passage of trains. 

''In the same manner if you are short of bolts 
and spikes and too much time would be lost by 
going after them, borrow some from track where 
they can be spared and fix track to let trains 
pass. 

*lf one or both trucks beneath a car should 
leave the track at once and turn across it as is 
often the case, uncouple from car and hitch a 



512 BUILDING AND REPAIRINO RAILWAYS. 

switch rope to the corner of the truck and to the 
draw head of the car next to the one which is off 
the track. Then pull the truck into a position 
parallel to the track, after which it can be put 
on the rails with the wrecking frogs. 

If the car should be loaded very heavily, it 
might be advisable to raise the end with jacks 
before squaring the truck. If the right man un- 
dertakes this job, the train need not be delayed 
over thirty minutes. 

" Sometimes when a car leaves the track, the 
center pin breaks or is so badly bent that it 
cannot be used again. This often happens on the 
road where there is nothing at hand to remove 
the crooked pin. In such a case, if the car is 
empty or not heavily loaded, it is best to roll the 
truck from beneath the car off the track, and 
haul the car into the station carefully supported 
on that end by the regular coupling pin and link. 

*'When the ends of a broken center pin do not 
project the end of a car can be jacked up, the 
truck placed in position, and the end of the car 
again allowed to rest in its place on the truck, 
after which, if watched carefully, the car can be 
hauled a long distance. 

"It often happens that a car gets off the track 
in such a place that it is impossible to get the 
help of an engine to pull it on again without con- 
siderable delay. When a case of this kind occurs 
and there are other cars on the track near by, 
take the car nearest to the one off the track and 
couple the two together with a chain or rope long 
enough to give plenty of slack. Then get to- 



WRECKS. 513 

gether what men are available and push the car 
which is on the track close to the wrecked car. 
When you are ready to pull the wrecked car up 
on the track, start the car which is coupled to it 
away from it as fast as the men can push it. The 
jerk, when the slack of the line is taken up, will 
pull the car on the track as well as an engine 
can do it. If you have men enough, use for the 
motive power, two or more cars if necessary. 
This is what is called 'slacking a car onto track.' 

**When cars have got off the track and are still 
on the ties, it is best to put blocks or ties be- 
tween those in the track to keep the wheels from 
sinking between the ties. By doing this at once 
before attempting to put the cars back on the 
track, will generally save considerable time and 
labor. 

"If an engine or car mounts the outside rail of 
a sharp curve, and persists in running off the 
track, oil the rails thoroughly where the most 
trouble is experienced. This will generally allow 
the engine or car to go around the curve without 
leaving the track. 

''Very rusty rails on a curve track which has 
not been used for some time, often cause the 
wheel to mount the outside rail of a curve, the 
surface not being smooth enough to allow the 
wheels to slide. 

"If at any time you find the connecting rod of 
a stub switch broken, or you want to use the 
switch and have no switch stand, slip a car link 
between the ends of the lead rails, allowing 
enough of it to project to hold the ends of the 

29 Vol. 13 



514 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS 

moving rails in place, or take a piece of plank of 
the right shape and use it in the same way as the 
link. This is better. 

*'When the car trucks are thrown some dis- 
tance from the track in a wreck, the quickest 
method of putting them on the track again if you 
have no derrick car, is to take bars and turn them 
almost parallel to the track, but with one end a 
little the closest to the track. Hitch a rope to 
this end of the truck and to the engine or the 
nearest car which is coupled to the engine, and 
the truck will pull onto the track easily, if there 
is nothing to obstruct its passage. 

'*A link made of iron or steel and fashioned 
after the pattern shown in Fig. 357 is very handy 




Fig. 357. 

DEVICE FOR SPLICING A BROKEN CHAIN. 

to have when at a wreck pulling cars or engines 
with a chain. If a chain breaks the two broken 
ends can be brought together, and fixed in this 
link as if held with a grab hook. 

'*When car trucks are sunk in soft ground at 
a wreck, and there is no derrick car or other lift- 



WRECKS. 515 

ing apparatus at hand, a good way to handle them 
is to place a tie cross way in the ground about 
four or five feet from the truck then place two 
more long ties or timbers with their centers rest- 
ing across the first tie and their ends in front of 
the truck wheels. The truck can then be pushed 
up on top of the long ties as if on a track. When 
it is centered over the bottom tie, the truck can 
be easily turned to run in any direction. 

"Trackmen in charge of a ballasting outfit if 
they are new in the business are often at a loss 
to know the quickest way to put a plow back on 
the cars if it should accidentally be pulled off on 
the ground. The best way to do in such a case 
is to roll the plow or pull it with the engine and 
cable into the same position on the track that it 
would occupy on the cars; then raise up the 
snout of the plow until you can back the end of 
a car under it, hook the end of the cable to the 
plow, block the car wheels and pull the plow on 
to the car with the engine. 

"li the hind truck of any kind of a car should by 
accident be derailed, broken or rendered useless, 
the car should be taken to the next station by 
uncoupling it from the cars behind it. Remove 
the disabled truck from the track; then take the 
caboose jacks and raise the body of the car 
enough to slip a tie under it across the track rails; 
let the car down upon the tie, and by running 
carefully the car can be hauled to the station or 
side track, sliding on the tie. 

*'It is always best when a w^recked car is loaded, 
to remove the load, or transfer it to another car 



516 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

on the good track. Outfits starting to go to a 
wreck should provide themselves with all the 
tools and appliances necessary for this purpose. 

''Car- truck center-pins which have been twisted 
or broken in a wreck may be removed by going 
inside the car and cutting away with a hammer 
and cold chisel the iron ring which forms the 
head and shoulder of the pin. The pin may then 
be driven down through the bottom of the car. 

''There should always be a man on hand at a 
wreck to look after such jobs, and promptly re- 
move all break-beams, hanging irons, etc., so as 
not to delay the work after the cars are picked 
up or ready to be put on the track. 

"When pulling on a chain or rope with a loco- 
motive at a wreck care should be taken not to 
have too much slack, as chains break easily. The 
same is true of switch ropes, but when they are 
new or not much worn, they will stand a greater 
slack strain than a chain will. Wire cables are 
preferable to either a chain or a rope for pulling, 
and they will stand a much greater slack strain, 
if not allowed to become twisted out of shape. 

"There is always danger of chains or switch 
ropes breaking when engines are pulling on them 
at a wreck, and those working near should not be 
allowed to stand too close to them. 

"What is generally termed 'a dead man' is a 
device sometimes used to anchor a guy or stay 
rope where wrecking cars, engines or derricks 
have to do very heavy hoisting or pulling. It is 
made by digging a trench five or six feet at a 
proper distance from the track and parallel to it. 



WRECKS. 517 

A narrow cross trench is then dug, slanting up- 
ward from the bottom and middle of the first 
trench to the surface of the ground. A good 
track tie or heavy timber is then buried in the 
first trench, and the rope is passed down through 
the cross trench and secured to the timber. 

''The first thing to do with a wrecked engine, 
if the frame is good, is to take jacks and put the 
engine in an upright position, such as it would 
occupy if standing on the main track. It may 
then be blocked up and raised sufficiently to 
place under it rails and ties, forming a temporary 
track. The main track should then be cut at a 
rail joint, and lined out in an easy curve until 
the ends of the rails are in line with the tem- 
porary track. The tracks should then be con- 
nected, and the engine pulled upon the main 
track. If the engine stands at such an angle as 
to require a very sharp curve in the track over 
which it is pulled, put plenty of oil on the track 
rails, and elevate the outside rail of the curve. 

''If the engine is only off the rails and still on 
the track ties, additional rails may be spiked 
down to the ties in front of the wheels like a 
switch lead, and connected with a pair of the 
track rails. The engine may be pulled on again 
over this lead and the main track closed. This 
method is quicker and better for putting a de- 
railed engine on the track when more than one 
truck is off the rails, than using frogs or blocking. 

" The first thing to do at any wreck of import- 
ance, Avhere cars block the main track, is to use 
the first locomotive which can be put into serv- 



518 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

ice, and with switch ropes pull clear of the 
tracks all cars, trucks or other wreckage which 
cannot be readily put back on the track with the 
facilities at hand for doing such work. Proper 
care should be taken, in doing this part of the 
work, not to injure freight in the cars. When 
necessary, remove it from the wrecked cars to a 
place of safety, and pull the cars and truck into 
a position alongside the track, where it will be 
handy for the wrecking car to pick them up after 
it arrives. 

" The moment the track is clear of wreckage, 
the track force should go to work and repair it, 
and quickly put it in good condition for trains. 

" Track foremen should not allow their men to 
become confused or mixed up with the other 
gangs of men which are present at a wreck, ex- 
cept when it is necessary for more than one gang 
of men to work together; even then the foreman 
should keep his own men as much together as 
possible, so as to always be able to control their 
actions and work them to the best advantage. 

No matter what part of the work at a wreck a 
for-eman is called upon to do, he should act 
promptly, and work with a will to get the wreck 
cleared up, and the track ready for passage of 
trains with as little delay as possible." 



CHAPTER X. 

MAINTENANCE OF BRIDGES AND BUILDINGS. 

The organization of the Bridges and Buildings 
Department of a railroad corresponds with that 
of the Maintenance of Way Department, the 
official known as the Superintendent of Bridges 
and Buildings corresponding to that of Road- 
master in the Maintenance of Way Department. 
Their relations to the operating and engineering 
departments are similar. 

The Superintendent of Bridges and Buildings 
is given more mileage than the Roadmaster; it 
varies from 300 to 400 miles of single track; 
where the road is a double track one, and bridges 
are frequent, the mileage is decreased ; where, 
however, the bridges are of iron and the culverts 
of stone or iron, the mileage can be increased. 

The general repair work under the supervision 
of the Superintendent of Bridges and Buildings 
requires three gangs of men, each of which is in 
charge of a foreman known as the bridge fore- 
man or boss carpenter. The number of men 
employed in the gang of each boss carpenter will 
depend largely on circumstances and the number 
of bridges and buildings under his supervision. 
Where a road is located in a thickly settled coun- 
try, no special outfit is required except a tool 
car; in a thinly settled country, however, 

(519) 



520 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 



each gang will require a boarding outfit, 
which generally consists of four or more 
cars, the first for cooking, the storing of pro- 
visions and the sleeping rooms for the boarding 
boss ; the second for a dining room ; the third 
provided with bunks for the men to sleep in; and 
the fourth for the tools. 

The tools required by a gang of bridge carpen- 
ters consist of : 



Name of Tool. 



No. of 

Fig. 

Adzes 264 

Axes, chopping 265 



hand, 
broad. 



281 

Augers 358 

Brace and bits 271 

Boring machine 359 

Bars, claw 275 

•• crow 360 

*« pinch 361 

•* shackel 362 

Blocks and falls 363 

Cars, hand 364 

•* push 365 

Cant hooks 366 

Peveys i 367 

Timber grapples 368 

Crabs, hoisting or winches 369 

Dolleys 370 

Files 278 and 371 

Flags, red 

•* green 

** white 

Grindstone . . 279 

Hammer, hand 382 

Jacks, hydraulic 353 

** screws 372 

Lanterns, red 

** green 



Name of Tool. 



No. of 
Pig. 

Lanterns, white 283 

Level, spirit : . . 297 

** track 307 

Oil can 285 

Oiler 286 

Pump, bilge •373 

Pick, earth 289 

Pile driver 

Padlock, R.R 288 

Saws, hand 293 

** crosscut ....294 

Spike, maul 299 

** puller 908 

Sledges 300 

Shovels 301 

** long handle 303 

Track lever or lifting bar. . 304 

Track gauge 305 

Torpedoes 309 

Tape line 50 feet long 

Toolbox 310 

Wheel barrows 313 

Water buckets 

** dipper 

** keg 

Wrenches, track 311 

** monkey 312 

•• bridge 377 

" wheel 378 



MAINTENANCE OF BEIDGES AND BUILDINGS, 521 



4 Fig. 358. 

SHIP AUGER BITS, USED BY BRIDGE CARPENTERS. 




Fig. 359. 

BORING MACHINE, USED WHERE HEAVY TIMBERS ARE FRAMED 



522 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS 



Fig. 360. 

CROW BAR. 



^^m 



Fig. 361. 



A PINCH BAR WITHOUT A HEEL. 
B »♦ *» WITH A HEEL. 



Fig. 362. 

SHACKEL BAR, USED FOR DRAWING DRIFT BOLTS. 






Fig. 363. 



A. SINGLE BLOCK. 

B. DOUBLE 

C. TRIPLE 



MAINTENANCE OF BRIDGES AND BUILDINGS. 523 




Fig. 364. 



BRIDGE HAND CAR, CONSTRUCTED TO CARRY A LARGER GANG 
OF MEN THAN THE HAND CAR USED BY A SECTION GANG. 




Fig. 365. 

HEAVY PUSH CAR FOR USE OF BRIDGE CREW. 



524 BUILDING JUSfD REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 



sSii^i^S^^ 



Fig. 366. 

CANT HOOK USED FOR ROLLING HEAVY TIMBER. 




*r*"^fr- 



x: 



Fig. 367. 



PEVEY. CAN BE USED AS A CANT HOOK OR CROW BAR IN 
HANDLING TIMBER. 




Fig. 368. 



TIMBER GRAPPLES OR LOG HOOKS FOR CARRYING HEAVY 
TIMBER. 





Fig. 369. 



HOISTING CRABS OR WINCHES. 

A. Single Purchase. 

B. Double Purchase. 

Used In connection with blocks and falls in hoisting heavy timbers and 
raising framed bents. 



MAINTENANCE OF BRIDGES AND BUILDINGS. 525 




Fig. 370. 

TIMBER TRUCKS OR DOLLYS. USED IN HANDLING HEAVY TIMBER. 




Fig. 371. 



A. TAPER FILE. 

B. DOUBLE END FILE. 
For sharpening saws. 




Fig. 372. 

HOUSE RAISING JACK SCREW. 



526 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 





Fig. 373. 



BILGE PUMPS. 

A. Bottom Suction. B. Side Suction. 

For pumping out foundations. 




Fig. 377. 

STEEL SOCKET BRIDGE WRENCH. 
For tightening nuts on large bolts. 

There are also required several tool chests of 
carpenter tools for use when building or repairing 
depots. Tt is not necessary to provide each gang 
with all of the above mentioned tools; while they 
are necessary some of them will be used only 
occasionally, and they can be left in charge of 
the division storekeeper to be issued for use as 
occasion requires. 

The number of each kind of tool required 
varies with the size of the gang and the char- 



MAINTENANCE OF BRIDGES AND BUILDINGS. 527 




(pa 



^^ fc^ 



:sm 



^h 



IDaa 

Fig. 378. 

WHEEL WRENCH. 

Used to tighten nuts on rods wliicli pass through a number of pieces of 
timber as caissons or cofferdams. 

acter of the repairs or new work which is being 
done. The aim should be to issue only such as 
are needed and keep the others in the division 
storehouse where they can be issued as required. 

The length of time timber lasts in bridges in 
the United States was given by a committee 
which reported to the Association of Railway 
Superintendents of Bridges and Buildings at their 
annual meeting in 1899, and is given in Appen- 
dix L. 



528 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

It is the custom of some engineers on new con- 
structions to place the ends of stringers of the 
first and last bents of a pile or trestle bridge on 
mud sills. After the embankment is thoroughly 
settled, piling is driven in the embankment and 
a cap put on these piles the same as for other 
bents in the bridge, and the stringers are placed 
on these caps. This is the first repair work gen- 
erally required on a new line. 

Two general inspections of all bridges and 
buildings should be made annually; one in the 
spring when the frost has come out of the ground, 
and the other in the fall before freezing weather. 
These inspections should commence at the end 
where the bridge numbers commence, and each 
structure should be inspected in the order in 
which it is numbered. Inspections should be 
made by the engineer, supiBrintendent of bridges 
and buildings and the bridge foreman. 

The spring inspection should be made to de- 
tect damage caused by frost, ice gorges, etc., 
during the severe weather of the past winter, 
and also to ascertain the work necessary to be 
done during the following summer. 

The fall inspection is to ascertain if the work 
laid out in the spring has been properly done, 
and that the structures are secure; also to ascer- 
tain what renewals and repairs are necessary to 
be made during the following year, so that an 
estimate of the material and labor required can 
be made to guide the managers of the property 
in providing for the outlay for the following year. 

Inspections should cover the following points: 



MAINTENANCE OF BRIDGES AND BUILDINGS, 529 

Bridge abutments, piers, arched culverts, stone 
box culverts and retaining walls should be ex- 
amined for indications of settlement in the foun- 
dation, cracks in the face, in the seams or in the 
stone, and the walls getting out of line on ac- 
count of the pressure of the embankment being 
too great for their strength. The foundations 
should have careful inspection to detect scour of 
the stream, and the rip rap should be examined 
to see if it is of sufficient quantity and so placed 
that during a freshet the current will not wash it 
away. Iron pipe culverts should be inspected to 
find if there is any opportunity of the water pass- 
ing through the embankment along the outside 
of the pipes, thus undermining the embankment. 
The outlets of iron pipe culverts, stone arch and 
box culverts, require inspection to ascertain 
whether the paving is being undermined and 
washed down. The inlets to these openings re- 
quire inspection to ascertain whether they are 
liable to be choked up by freshets bringing down 
brush and drift which will cause the water to 
flow over the embankment. 

All dirt and rubbish on bridge seats should be 
noted. 

Timber structures should be carefully exam- 
ined for decayed and broken members, and all 
such members noted and their exact location 
given for the guidance of the foreman of the 
gang making the repairs. The bracing or framed 
bents, both longitudinal and sway bracing, should 
be carefully examined to ascertain that they 

30 Vol. 13 



530 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

are securely fastened to the sills, caps, plumb 
and batter posts. 

Wooden truss bridges should be examined for 
cracks in the cast iron attachments, such as 
angle blocks, chord boxes, and post shoes; any 
indication of the displacement of these members 
should be carefully looked for; also indications 
of openings in bottom chords or crushing of the 
timber in the top of the chord; shearing of clamp 
daps should be noted and the nuts on all bolts 
should be tight. The truss rods must be kept 
taut but not strained, and their adjustment made 
when there is no load on the structure. The 
camber should be true and uniform for both the 
top and bottom chord. Under a live load the 
deflection should not be excessive and should be 
the same for both trusses, this should be tested 
by an instrument. As provision should always 
be made for the protection of wooden structures 
from fire, barrels of water or other extinguishing 
devices are kept in proximity to wooden bridges 
and other structures. In making inspections 
these should be noted, to ascertain that the 
means for preventing or extinguishing fires are 
kept in proper order. 

When inspecting iron bridges, the inspectors 
should ascertain if the bed plates and rollers are 
clean, and if the rollers stand so they will move 
squarely back and forth with the truss; the con- 
nections between floor beams and trusses must be 
examined for splitting of the connecting angles; 
in case of suspended floor beams particular atten- 
tion must be given to see if they are tight against 



MAINTENANCE OF BRIDGES AND BUILDINGS. 531 

the post bed or free to move. The tension can be 
tested by springing the tension members. Exami- 
nation should be made to detect distortion or 
crookedness in members. Counter, lateral and 
vibration rods must be kept taut but should not 
be strained, and must be adjusted when there is 
no load on the bridge. The center line of all 
tension members should be in the line of the 
strain. The posts, lateral struts and top chords 
should be straight and free from twists. Field 
driven rivets should be lightly sounded to see 
that they are tight, and any movement indicated 
by rust streaks or other signs in any of the mem- 
bers should be noted. The camber of both the 
top and bottom chords should be regular and 
similar. Under a live load the deflection should 
not be excessive and should be the same for the 
two trusses in the same span. 

Buildings and platforms should be inspected for 
decay in sills, and the foundations should be ex- 
amined; defects in chimneys should be looked 
for and the condition of the roof, the fastenings 
for doors and windows require careful examina- 
tion. The condition of the floors, siding and 
plastering must also be noted. 

Coal sheds and water tanks should be inspected 
for decayed timber and defects in foundations. 

Overhead bridges for highways require the 
same inspection as truss bridges. 

The foreman of the section gang should go over 
his section during and after each rain storm, and 
not only carefully examine the roadbed, but the 
bridges and culverts; he should remove drift from 



532 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

the openings and any loose brush and drift which 
is liable to be washed down and stop up a culvert 
or drain; the tendency of streams to change their 
channel should always be carefully considered; 
the extreme high water should be marked in a 
permanent manner and the engineer advised so 
he can take the elevation. After the water has 
run off the section foreman should again look 
over the openings for damage done to founda- 
tions, rip rap, the outlets of culverts and for any 
tendency of the water to pass through an em- 
bankment on the outside of a pipe or stone cul- 
vert. 

From the data secured during the fall inspec- 
tion, estimates of material and the cost of labor 
required to make the improvements and renewals 
are made. These estimates are presented to the 
managers of the property who decide upon the 
work which will be done during the following 
season, and the material is ordered for such new 
structures or repairs as the managers decide up- 
on. The material is delivered as directed by the 
Superintendent of Bridges and Buildings, the ob- 
ject being to have as small an amount of money 
as possible tied up in material laying in yards, 
and on the right of way where it is liable to be 
destroyed by fire or to be stolen. There should 
however, be a sufi&cient supply of material at di- 
vision headquarters to make small repairs to 
bridges in case of washouts or other accidents. 
The material for repairs to large bridges caused 
by accidents such as fires, freshets, or collisions, 
should be kept at the general headquarters of the 



MAINTENANCE OF BRIDGES AND BUILDINGS. 533 

road. This method reduces the amount of idle 
money locked up in material to a minimum; 
where the railway system is a large one, material 
for extensive repairs to large structures can be 
kept at two or more points. 

The records kept by the Superintendent of 
Bridges and Buildings should give the date when 
the piling was driven and the length from the 
point to the cut off, so that he can judge as to 
the security of the foundation. The date when 
all sills, plumb and batter posts, caps, corbels, 
stringers, ties and guard rails were placed in 
bridges should be kept in a convenient manner 
for ready reference, and this record book should 
be taken along when the inspections are being 
made. 

The first aim of the Superintendent of Bridges 
and Buildings should be to secure a good founda- 
tion for all his repair work; to keep the structure 
thoroughly braced both while making the repairs 
and afterward. 

All joints should be made to fit snug and the 
bearing should not come on one corner or edge 
of a stick of timber, but should come evenly over 
the whole section of the stick as a plumb post in 
a trestle or a diagonal or a member of the top or 
bottom chords of a Howe truss. The caps of a 
pile bent or the sills and caps of a framed bent 
should be square with the track on a tangent and 
radial to the track curve. No repair work should 
be allowed which throws the strain on a member 
outside of its center line, thus tending to bend or 
buckle the member. 



534 BUILDING AND REPAIEING RAILWAYS, 

In truss bridges the floor beams should always 
be placed at right angles to the track, this not 
only makes better riding track, but distributes 
the load uniformly between each truss. The 
main and counter braces should always be in 
their proper condition on the angle blocks before 
adjusting the truss rods. 

" When the span has the required camber and 
the counter braces are tight, those individual rods 
in each panel which may be slack should be 
tightened until each rod in the panel is strained 
in proportion to its area. When the rods are 
slack, counter braces loose, and camber less than 
required, commencing at first set of rods at either 
end of truss, tighten them evenly, not enough to 
buckle the counter braces, bat enough to so firmly 
fix the ends of these against the angle block that 
an ordinary blow with a maul will not start them 
from proper position, following which, treat the 
first panel at the opposite end of truss in the 
same manner. This done, adjust the second 
panels from each end, and so on, working alter- 
nately from each end of the truss toward the 
center until each set of rods has been put in ad- 
justment. Regardless of how much care has been 
taken to get the tension on all rods even, many 
rods will be found to require a second adjustment 
in order to leave the truss in perfect condition. 

''Be very careful not to overstrain small rods 
by exerting too much force on them. 

'The force required to tighten a large rod is 
sufficient to break a small one, and good judg- 
ment should be exercised to the end that each 
rod be strained only in proportion to its size. 



MAINTENANCE OF BRIDGES AND BUILDINGS. 535 

"Do not attempt to increase the camber in a 
span by tightening the rods if the counter braces 
are all tight against the angle blocks. While it 
is possible to increase the camber in this manner, 
the result is accomplished at the expense of high 
initial strain on the rods, buckled counter braces, 
broken angle blocks, and sheared packing keys 
and clamps in the chord, each and all of which 
are much more dangerous than want of camber. 

"In practice it frequently occurs that the cam- 
ber can be somewhat improved, in adjusting a 
truss, by slacking off the rods slightly in three 
or four panels each side of the center of the truss, 
before commencing at the ends of the truss to 
finally adjust the rods. 

*'In order to permit the angle blocks to be read- 
ily placed in position, the seats for same in the 
chords are frequently framed with play enough 
to allow them to move slightly from their orig- 
inal position when subjected to the thrust from 
the main braces, the bottom angle block moving 
toward the end of the truss, and the top angle 
block toward the center of the truss. As this in- 
creases the length of the panel in the direction 
of the main brace, and shortens it in the direc- 
tion of the counter brace, it is obvious that, in 
order to preserve the original camber of the truss, 
new braces should be provided throughout, but 
usually the movement of the angle block is so 
slight that, while seriously affecting the camber, 
the angle of the brace is not changed enough to 
be noticeable as regards its bearing against the 
angle block. 



536 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

*'Id such cases the counter braces can be short- 
ened sufficiently to bring the truss to required 
camber without injurious effect on the truss. 

*'In no instance should this be done without first 
receiving the sanction of the Bridge Superintend- 
ent. 

"In adjusting the end panel rods of long heavy 
trusses^ it is advisable to take up a portion of the 
dead load by means of a screw jack placed under 
the panel to be adjusted, which relieves the strain 
on the rods and assists in raising the truss to its 
proper position. 

'The object in doing this is readily apparent 
from the fact that the wrench can be applied to 
only one rod at a time, and unless some assist- 
ance is given it, half the weight of the truss be- 
tween it and the opposite abutment is thrown 
upon the rod. 

''A block should be placed between the jack 
and the chord of sufficient length and strength to 
distribute the thrust from the jack over all the 
strands of chord to avoid any movement of the 
strands upon one another. 

''Always remove the jack before allowing trains 
to pass over the bridge. 

"When jack screws cannot be used, nuts should 
be turned a very little at a time on each rod in 
rotation. Nuts on truss rods must be screwed up 
by applying a steady pressure to the wrench, no 
advantage being taken of the slack between the 
socket and nut to produce a blow on the nut by 
an oscillating movement of the wrench, as it not 
only destroys the shape of the nut, but has a 
tendency to injure both nut and rod. 



MAINTENANCE OF BRIDGES AND BUILDINGS. 537 

** Always support the truss by a post or bent 
placed under the next panel before removing the 
end panel main braces and the old abutment 
block, and do not remove it or allow trains to 
pass over the bridge until the new block and 
braces are in place and the truss is again in ad- 
justment. 

''Where a broken angle block in bottom chord 
is to be replaced with a new one, a post or bent 
must be placed under the next panel point to- 
ward the center of the truss, sufficiently strong 
to support the portion of the truss which would 
otherwise be unsupported if the braces were re- 
moved. When it is impracticable to support the 
truss in the above mentioned manner, two rods 
should be provided of sufficient length to run 
diagonally and in line with the counter brace 
from the top of the truss over the panel point in 
which the angle block is to be replaced, to the 
bottom of the truss under the next panel point 
toward the center of the truss with heavy wooden 
gibs top and bottom. 

''The gibs must extend several inches beyond 
the chord on each side and have holes bored 
through them at the proper angle, so that when 
the rods are in place there will be one on each 
side of the truss. The rods are to be tightened 
until the load on the truss rods is removed, when 
the main and counter braces, truss rods and 
angle block can be removed and replaced. 

"In replacing an angle block in the top chord 
support the panel point in which the angle block 
is to be changed in the same manner, taking care 



538 BUILDING AND BE PAIRING RAILWAYS. 

to leave in all braces which do not abut on the 
angle block to be replaced. 

"No train should be allowed to cross the bridge 
until the truss is in adjustment and the support, 
if from the ground, is removed. 

''Angle blocks are frequently broken by the 
shrinkage in the timber of the chord allowing 
the gib to bear against the ends of the angle 
block tubes. In this case hard wood shims of 
sufficient thickness must be placed between the 
gibs and chord to keep the gibs away from the 
tubes. In doing this do not slack the truss rods 
until temporary rods passing through strong 
wooden gibs have been put in place, one on each 
side of the chord, as near to the panel point as 
possible to keep the truss in shape while the rods 
are loose. 

''If more convenient a post can be placed under 
the panel point, which is to be removed before 
allowing trains to cross, and truss must be in 
adjustment for either method before allowing 
trains to cross. 

"The recurring adjustment of the truss and lat- 
eral rods in a deck truss, and the inevitable 
reduction in the distance between the chords 
resulting from it, makes it necessary to shorten 
the transverse braces from time to time so that 
they may not be excessively strained. They 
must be kept tight, but not tight enough to 
buckle the timber or displace the strands, against 
which they abut from their proper position in the 
chord, as this would result in broken keys and 
clamps. 



MAINTENANCE OF BRIDGES AND BUILDINGS. 539 

''Lateral rods must always be kept tight enough 
so that an ordinary blow with a maul will not 
start the ends of the braces from position on 
seats. The braces must be sufficiently well fast- 
ened at center intersections so as not to fall out, 
even though rods may be slack. 

''When it is necessary to use a pile driver in a 
through span, the end set of laterals must always 
be in place for the passage of trains, and not 
more than two intermediate sets of bottom or 
three of top laterals may be left out during the 
passage of a train. 

"When strengthening a weak chord with rein- 
forcing strands, the key-ways must be framed in 
both chord and strand, and enough new laterals 
framed to avoid the necessity of having out at 
one time more than two contiguous sets of lat^ 
erals during the passage of trains. 

"Speed of trains must be very slow while lat 
eral system is incomplete. 

"Camber blocks must always fill the space be- 
tween the floor beams and stringers, so that each 
floor beam will take its portion of the load on 
the stringer."* 

When it is necessary to reline the track on 
bridges the engineer should give the centers re- 
quired. 

Overhead bridges should be given a clearance 
of 22 feet above the rail, the large furniture and 
vehicle cars having a height of 14i to 14f feet 
from the rail to the running board; all structures 



* Rules of Southern Pacific Company. 



540 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

having a less clearance should be raised; if this 
is impracticable, whips^ or telltales should be 
placed 150 feet each side of the approach to the 
structure. 

No work should be done during foggy weather 
or a snow storm, and the bridge foreman and his 
men should be familiar with the rules of the op- 
erating department, f 

"^ Whips are knotted cords hanging from a support across the 
track; when a train man is struck by them, he knows it is neces- 
sary to sit down on the running board of the car or get between 
the cars to avoid being struck by an overhead bridge or the top 
work of a through bridge. 

t Bridges are also discussed in the chapters on Construction 
and Standards, and also in Appendix L. 



CHAPTER XI. 

CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE ACCOUNTS. 

No treatise on the construction and mainten- 
ance of railways would be complete without a 
reference to the accounts that are kept and the 
statistics that are made by railway companies in 
regard to these features. The field is a large one 
and, on systems of any magnitude, requires the 
services of a distinct bureau of the accounting 
department, the attaches of which are not only 
found at headquarters, but scattered along the 
line. This bureau keeps account of every item 
of material received and disbursed and of all 
labor expended. It ascertains the cost of each 
individual structure and improvement, and keeps 
accurate account of every item of money and 
labor expended on structures and sections of the 
track, distributing them to appropriate accounts. 
Minute Classifications of Construction and Oper- 
ating Expenses are kept. Thus the general Con- 
struction Classification is made up of accounts 
as follows, to one of which every item of expen- 
diture on Construction is charged : Ballasting, 
Block Signals, Board of Construction Force, 
Bridges, Trestles and Culverts, Buildings, Fur- 
niture and Fixtures, Clearing and Grubbing, 
Construction Supply Depots, Construction Trains, 
Discount, Docks and Wharves, Electric Light 

(541) 



542 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 

Plants, Electric Motive Power Plants, Engineer- 
ing, Exchange, Fences, Frogs and Switches, Gas- 
making Plants, Grading, Interest, Interlocking 
Switches, Legal Expenses, Miscellaneous Ex- 
penses, Miscellaneous Track Material, Rails, Real 
Estate, Right of Way, Road Crossings and Signs, 
Rolling Stock, Shop Machinery and Tools, Sid- 
ings, Stationery Bond Shares and other forms, 
Stock Yards, Telegraph, Ties, Tracklaying and 
Surf acing. Transportation of Material, Transport- 
ation of Men, Tunnels, Contra-Construction Earn- 
ings. This may be further elaborated as the 
needs of railways require. The Classification of 
Operating Expenses (including Maintenance) is 
divided into four grand divisions as follows: I. 
Maintenance of Way and Structures ; II. Main- 
tenance of Equipment ; III. Conducting Trans- 
portation; IV. General Expenses. These main 
divisions are sub-divided according to the needs 
of the management and the requirements of the 
Federal and State Government Commissions. 
Thus the Interstate Commerce Commission re- 
quires ''Maintenance of Way and Structures" to 
be sub-divided into ten accounts, to one of which 
every expenditure on Maintenance of Way and 
Structures is charged; viz.: (1) Repairs of road- 
way; (2) Renewals of rails; (3) Renewals of 
ties; (4) Repairs and renewals of bridges and 
culverts; (5) Repairs and renewals of fences, 
road crossings, signs and cattle guards; (6) Re- 
pairs and renewals of buildings and fixtures; 
(7^ Repairs and renewals of docks and wharves; 
(8) Repairs and Renewals of telegraph; (9) Sta- 
tionery and printing; (10) Other expenses. 



CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE ACCOVjsIS. 543 

The subject, it will thus be seen, is so vast that 
it is impossible to treat it adequately in one 
chapter. The reader will, however, find a full 
exposition of it in the author's work entitled, 
^^ Disbursements of Rail wa vs.'' 



CHAPTER XII. 

MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION — WHAT COST IS DE- 
PENDENT UPON. 

[Note. — For a full understanding of the maintenance and 
operation of railways, a knowledge of accounting in connection 
therewith is desirable. The reader will find this important 
branch of the subject in the book " Disbursements of Eail- 
ways."] 

The tendency of railway operations from the 
start has been to lessen cost and reduce rates. 

The expense of maintaining a railroad is 
dependent upon cost of material and labor, con- 
dition of the property, amount and kind of traflSc, 
nature of the climate, character of bridges, cul- 
verts, buildings and platforms, nature and 
adequacy of ballast and drainage, and finally the 
weight and texture of the rail. These comprise 
the principal items. 

Cost of conducting traflBc depends upon the 
grade and alignment of road, quantity and nature 
of the traflBc, adequacy of the company's facilities, 
cost of labor, character of the latter, etc. 

The maximum price is paid for labor in Amer- 
ica; the minimum price in India. 

The rapid development of railways in America 
is attributable to the intelligence and economy 
exercised in their construction and operation, and 

(544) 



MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION. 545 

to the fortitude of railway owners and the skill 
and boundless ambition of railway managers. 

A railway, like the human body, is constantly 
undergoing change, yet so gradually as not to be 
noticeable. Not only does everything wear out, 
but many things are put away while yet stable 
to give place to something better. Thus dimin- 
utive engines have been supplanted. This last 
change necessitated a better roadbed, heavier 
rails, better fastenings and stronger bridges and 
culverts. 

Track scales that answered every requirement 
in the early history of carriers have long since 
been replaced by others capable of accommodat- 
ing greater loads and longer vehicles. 

Necessity has been the mother of invention. 
To need a thing has been to induce its invention 
and introduction. This is seen in the truss bridge, 
the swivel truck by which railway vehicles adjust 
themselves readily to the track, the equalizing 
beams of locomotives, by which their adhesion is 
increased and their hauling capacity multiplied, 
and so on, and in an incomprehensible number of 
ways, improvements in railway appliances are 
not confined to any particular department of the 
service. They cover every field, from the tie 
used to the form of check with which dividends 
are paid. They are seen in the substitution of 
steel for iron; of the fish bar for the old-fashioned 
chair; of sixty-ton locomotives for those that 
weighed six; in improved forms of axles, springs, 
splices, spikes, signals, the tread flange and center 

31 Vol. 13 



546 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

of wheels, and other appliances. Each in its 
way tended to render transportation quicker, 
safer and cheaper, and therefore more generally 
used. 

To know the cost of maintaining a particular 
property as compared with another property, is 
not to possess anything of value, unless we have 
accompanying details. Greater outlay one year 
may be offset by lowered expenses the succeed- 
ing year. Differences are also occasioned by 
varying cost of material. Use occasions wear 
and tear; hence a property that is used much 
wears out more quickly than one that is not. To 
compare the cost of maintenance of two or more 
roads intelligently, we must know how far the 
differences are inherent and how far the result of 
management or traflfic. 

The cost of maintaining railways is relatively 
less each year. This is due to the better estab- 
lishment of the roadbed, cheaper material,* 
higher skilled labor and kindred causes. 

Effectiveness requires that ultimate perfection 
should be the aim of railway management. Long 
delays may intervene, and many makeshifts based 
on the character of the business and the income 
of the property adopted, but the building up of 
the property to a perfect standard should be and 
is the aim. It involves systematic organization; 
a machine capable of intelligent and consecutive 

*Iii Great Britain there was a decrease of fifty-four per cent. 
in the cost of material per mile of road in 1885 as compared with 
1876, and this notwithstanding the increased mileage of trains. 



MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION, 547 

action. Nothing creditable or permanent can be 
attained in any other way. Work without sys- 
tem involves the affairs of a railroad in the same 
confusion that similar work involves other indus- 
tries. It is not an unusual thing in the history 
of a railway to see the greatest perfection at- 
tained in one branch of the service while every- 
thing else will be comparatively crude. 

This fact, while illustrating capacities, shows 
how distinct the different departments of a rail- 
road are from each other, while acting in unison 
for the attainment of a common end. Men are 
not alike blessed with wisdom, experience or 
capability. The ignorant, the dull, the obstinate 
and the vicious, while not numerous in railway 
life, still abound. They are stumbling blocks and 
retard the efforts of their more amiable brothers. 

In the progress of work on a railway much de- 
pends on the general manager; but capability 
here cannot supply the place of mediocrity, in- 
difference or worthlessness elsewhere. To over- 
come the inertia, there must be active co-operation 
throughout every part of a property, and its su- 
pervision must be wise, intelligent, faithful and 
constant. In no other way can a systematic or- 
ganization be built up or maintained or the best 
results achieved. 

Unfortunately we have no means of fitting men 
for railway business as we have for making law- 
yers and doctors. Railway men are educated in 
the business after they enter the service. This 
involves long apprenticeship, capable instructioD 



548 BUILDING AND REPAIBING RAILWAYS. 

and competent instructors. Over every depart- 
ment of railway service there must extend the 
active supervision of a single man, supplemented 
by capable assistants. In this way only can effi- 
ciency be secured. An organization thus effected 
must supplement its labors by exhibits of results, 
so that comparisons may be made. Without 
these comparisons it will oftentimes be impossi- 
ble to distinguish between capable, industrious 
and economical men and those of a contrary 
character. 

In railway operations, prevention is a guiding 
factor. To stop the leak in the roof promptly, 
to strengthen the crumbling wall without delay, 
is to prevent disintegration, very likely accident. 
This applies to the track, equipment, buildings, 
bridges, fences and other structures of railways 
as much as it does to the houses of citizens. Not 
only is the destruction of property prevented by 
such measures, but cost of maintenance is reduced. 
Moreover, if action is not prompt, those in- 
trusted with the work become disheartened by 
the great expense and the immensity of the field. 

The question of railway maintenance is by no 
means simple. Its proper understanding in- 
volves a knowledge of every detail of railway 
construction and operation; acquaintance with 
the topography of the country, its climate, popu- 
lation, financial resources and distance from the 
base of supply. We must also be familiar with 
methods of taxation, the personnel of the force, 
extent and nature of the company's appliances, 



MAINTENANCE AND OPEBATION. 549 

and the amount and kind of its traffic. These 
are fundamental. Maintenance means some- 
thing more than preservation of the track, 
bridges, buildings and other structures. It also 
means the building up and maintaining of a 
competent and trustworthy organization and 
the proper grouping of forces, without which a 
property is cumbersome and unwieldy. 

Features incidental to railway maintenance 
are the differences, inherent and otherwise, in 
railway construction, and the consequent differ- 
ences in cost of operating and maintaining that 
follow. They form a part of the question, and 
therefore engage the attention of those con- 
cerned. Their comprehension is, moreover, neces- 
sary to a proper comparison of results. Because 
of this let us glance, for a moment, at some of 
the differences between railroads. 

The disbursements of a railroad are influenced, 
favorably or otherwise, by the peculiarities of the 
country through which it passes, and until these 
are determined we cannot estimate the cost of 
maintaining or operating. The circumstances sur- 
rounding the cost of constructing a road first, and 
operating and maintaining it afterward, change 
with every succeeding mile. The distinction is 
more marked in some cases than in others, but it 
exists everywhere and at all times. In one case 
it will be th'C difference between a road located 
upon the summit of a mountain and another 
located in a valley, or between one that surmounts 
a steep and dangerous ascent and one constructed 



550 BUILDING AND BEPAIRINO RAILWAYS, 

upon a perfectly level plain. In another case it 
will depend on the elasticity of the roadbed, the 
suflBciency of the drainage, the quantity and qual- 
ity of the ballast, or the manner in which the 
latter is applied. Instances of difference have no 
limit. However small, they affect the cost of 
maintaining and working. 

The differences in cost will vary from a few 
cents per mile to hundreds of dollars. The ex- 
tent of the difference can only be anticipated by 
a careful survey of the property. In some cases 
it will be so marked as to make itself perceptible 
to the dullest comprehension; in others it will 
be discernible only to experts in such matters. 

A road with costly bridges, high embankments, 
precipitous grades, sharp curves and extended 
tunnels will, it is manifest, cost more to main- 
tain and operate than a line devoid of these 
costly features. 

In considering relative cost, as affected by the 
peculiarities of a country, I can only notice the 
more important differences. Generally, it may 
be stated as true that a road traversing a level 
country, adapted to grazing or agriculture, is 
more cheaply worked than a line differently 
located. Its drainage may be difficult, and a 
supply of ballast not easily obtainable, except at 
considerable expense, but such objections are 
felt more or less on all roads. They are more 
than offset by the obstacles to be surmounted on 
a line located in a hilly country. Moreover, a 
company whose property is favorably located, as 



MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION. 551 

regards grades and alignment, can haul the max- 
imum load. It has been demonstrated that upon 
a line favorably located a locomotive can per- 
form three times the service possible upon a line 
unfavorably situated in this respect. Moreover, 
v^ear and tear of equipment is less. Accidents 
are also diminished. The expense of keeping the 
road in good condition is much lighter. Many 
other differences might be cited. 

On the other hand, the drainage of a road 
vv^hich winds around the edge of a mountain 
range is more easily provided for than on one 
traversing an alluvial plain. 

The first presents highly favorable circum- 
stances for economical and effective drainage, the 
latter rarely does. To a superficial observer, the 
difference in cost of operation and maintenance 
between a track susceptible of perfect drainage 
and one that is not is never rightly estimated. 
Imperfect drainage, besides being an evil in 
itself, implies collateral evils. The roadbed is 
hard to maintain, ties rapidly decay, rails speedily 
become unfit for use. A large force, relatively, 
must also be kept constantly employed, while 
frequent renewals of the track itself are required. 
Cost is multiplied in many directions. 

For these reasons engineers are careful to make 
provision for good drainage, whenever possible. 
In many instances, however, the nature of the 
soil or the character of the country render it im- 
possible. In such cases the burden on the carrier 
becomes a permanent one. 



552 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

No other phase of railway operations possesses 
such a variety of aspects as the question of drain- 
age. None requires greater knowledge and skill. 
It is not only essential that the person in charge 
possesses the practical qualities of an engineer, 
which enable him to utilize to the utmost the 
topographical features of the country, but he must 
understand the a^^tion of water upon different 
kinds of soil; must be able to distinguish between 
that kind of soil which will absorb water without 
especial detriment to the roadbed and that which 
must be quickly relieved of the burden. He must 
also understand the law of capillary attraction 
and take necessary measures to remove the track 
beyond the reach of its influence. 

Questions of temperature are prime factors. In 
a cold region the cost of generating steam is 
greater than in a milder climate. The load 
hauled is also less, while broken and defective 
rails and damaged machinery and appliances 
multiply in number indefinitely. Absence of 
elasticity in a frozen roadbed increases wear and 
tear of equipment and hastens the destruction 
of track. To these must be added the cost of 
keeping the track free from snow and ice in a 
cold climate. The disbursements on this latter 
account appear in cost of snowplows, supplies, 
wages, use of locomotives and cars, added cost of 
fences and snowsheds, and, finally, in delay of 
business. Upon many lines located within the 
snow belt the expense of keeping the track free 
from snow and ice forms a considerable propor- 



MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION, 553 

tion of the total cost. From this and kindred 
expenses, lines further south are happily free. 
On the other hand, however, the latter have their 
own disadvantages, such as rapid deterioration 
from insects and climatic causes. 

Differences in cost of fencing also affect mainte- 
nance and operations. Upon some roads no fences 
are practically required in America; upon others 
their erection and maintenance are difficult and 
expensive. A company contiguous to supplies is 
put to less expense for fence material than a line 
located at a distance. Moreover, the laws defin- 
ing a legal fence are not the same in every state. 
Relative cost is thus further complicated. 

Cost of maintaining and operating is vitally 
affected by the number and character of the 
grades. Every foot of ascent entails extra ex- 
pense. A line that requires a heavy engine to 
move a minimum load cannot be worked as 
cheaply as a line more favorably located. Cost 
varies upon railroads according to the nature of 
the country, the judgment exercised in locating 
the line and the money expended in overcoming 
construction obstacles. Experts do not agree as 
to the ratio of expense each foot of elevation 
occasions, but it is relatively much greater when 
the rise is abrupt than when gradual. Thus, cost 
of a maximum grade of one hundred feet to the 
mile is more than where the grade is fifty feet. 
Nor is the collateral outlay which gradients entail 
relatively the same. Differences in cost of main- 
taining track are particularly noticeable. Cost 



554 BUILDING AND EEPAIRINO RAILWAYS. 

of fuel, lubricants and wear and tear of machinery 
are also heightened. 

The curvature of a track, hardly less than its 
grades, affects the cost of maintaining and work- 
ing, though the fact is not so generally recognized. 

Another important feature is alignment. De- 
fective alignment adds to the cost of property in 
the first place and the expense of maintaining 
and working it afterward. The inconvenience 
continues without sensible diminution until the 
mistake is remedied, but as defective alignment 
oftentimes involves questions of management 
and policy as well as cost of correction, it follows 
that such defects are generally of much longer 
standing than they would be if they came within 
the duty of the practical men who look after the 
track. An acute defect these latter may remedy, 
but errors in alignment affecting considerable 
sections of a line they may not notice, or if they 
do, are oftentimes unable to demonstrate the 
practicability of their views. 

Many other differences affect cost. Thus a 
company that is compelled, either by the nature 
of its traffic or the peculiarities of its line, to sever 
and reunite its trains at intervals is put to greater 
expense for maintenance and operation than one 
that does not. This expense will vary according 
to the length of the haul, the amount and char- 
acter of the load and the particulars of a local 
nature thai, affect the transfer. Such expenses 
represent m a measure, it maybe said, the differ- 
ence between cost of handling through and local 



MAINTEI^AKCE AJSTD OPExiATION, 555 

business. However, many terminal expenses 
involved by the latter are wanting. 

Relative cost is affected by density of population, 
more especially the frequency with which towns, 
villages and cities occur. It is also influenced by 
the number and character of the tunnels, viaducts 
and road crossings. Every tunnel, viaduct and 
road crossing increases cost in the same sense 
that a line dotted with signals and crowded with 
watchmen cannot be worked as cheaply as a road 
running through a country where these precau- 
tions are unnecessary. 

Anything that interferes with the free move- 
ment of trains, or that increases or diminishes the 
speed best suited to the load hauled, adds to cost. 
Thus the amount of fuel required by a locomotive 
to start its load is relatively much greater than 
the amount required to keep it in motion once it 
is started. Experts have estimated the loss of 
power occasioned by stopping a train traveling 
at the rate of twenty-five miles an hour as suffi- 
cient to carry it a mile forward on its journey. 
Consumption of fuel, it is also to be remembered, 
is only lessened, not avoided, while a locomotive 
is thus idle. Further than this, the wages of em- 
ployes experience no abatement, while the extra 
cost of wear and tear of road and equipment, in- 
cident to the interruption, are considerable in 
every case. Finally, it may be said that anything 
which retards the business of a railroad, increases 
its cost or multiplies the restrictions under which 
its trains are operated, adds to the cost of doing 



556 BUILDING AND BEPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

business and lessens by just so much the facili- 
ties of the public. The interests of the public, not 
less than owners, require that railroads should 
be harassed by as few restrictions as possible. 



Particulars of construction act and react on 
the operating expenses of railroads. Cost is 
never the same relatively upon any two lines. 

The same influences that contribute to swell 
the first cost of a road serve in the majority of 
cases to increase its operating expenses afterward. 

In investigating the subject of railway econ- 
omy, each enterprise must be judged according 
to its environment. In no other way can its sta- 
tus be accurately ascertained. 

The causes which produce differences in the 
cost of operating properties are so numerous and 
so complex that I can only notice the more im- 
portant. This partial analysis will be useful, not 
for the information of experts, but fo*- those 
whose facilities for observing the multitudinous 
details of railway operation are limited. 

The influences that occasion differences in cost 
of operating open up incidentally the whole vista 
of railway administration. I shall consider but 
one phase here and only the more salient features 
of this. 

And first, in regard to supplies. To ascertain 
the cost of these, including fuel, the expense of 
handling and the cost of transportation must be 
added to first cost. 



MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION, 557 

The first cost of fuel is very small in many 
cases, but the expense of hauling and the absence 
of economical facilities for unloading from the 
cars, and afterward placing it upon the tenders, 
makes the final cost very great, much greater 
even than is discernible from the accounts. The 
expense is aggravated in the case of many com- 
panies by their having no return load for their 
cars. Much of the cost of fuel appears in the 
returns under foreign headings and thus remains 
unknown. In portraying the expenses of a rail- 
road we cannot, if we would, group in the 
accounts or elsewhere, under one head, all the 
expenses incident to a particular article of 
material. 

To the first cost we must add the shrinkage, 
and in the case of fuel and oils this is very great. 
The cost of substituting new material for old, in 
the case of repairs and renewals, must also be 
remembered. With many classes of material the 
cost of substitution equals or exceeds the first 
cost. It is considerable under the most favorable 
circumstances. The disbursements, for instance^ 
that attend the substitution of new track mate- 
rial for old material of the same kind are very 
great. This is noticeably so with rails and ties. 
It is measurably the same with machinery and 
fixtures that appertain to bridges, buildings and 
other structures. 

To ascertain the cost of any kind of material 
we must consider it relatively. Thus, in weigh- 
ing the value of a particular quality of fuel we 



558 CVILDINO AND BE PAIRING EAILWATS. 

must consider its heating capacity and effect 
upon the locomotive. These, therefore, and not 
the price asked for the coal by the dealer, finally 
determine the cost of the article. 

To purchase an article without considering the 
collateral effect is, in many cases, to occasion a 
loss out of all proportion to the main transaction. 

Ability to pay for material promptly affects 
sensibly the price for which it can be bought. 

Interest on money invested in supplies also 
forms a part of cost. 

The time expended upon an article, and the 
accounting it involves, must be considered; nor 
must the cost of storage and the outlay for in- 
surance be overlooked. 

Thus, a multiplicity of things are to be consid- 
ered before the final cost of an article can be 
known. 

Roads operated in the immediate vicinity of 
markets buy more cheaply than lines located at 
a distance. Their presence exercises a favorable 
influence on the dealer. They are, moreover, able 
to keep better posted in reference to the market. 

A company that concentrates its purchases can 
buy upon more advantageous terms than one that 
intrusts its purchases to a number of persons or 
to officers not skilled in the way of buying 
cheaply.* 



* No one ever connected with a railway company in a re- 
sponsible position, it may be said in this connection, can have 
failed to be impressed by the great importance which the re- 
sponsible managers of railroads attach to the organization and 



MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION, 559 

The necessities of a company, real or imagi- 
narj% sometimes induce it to purchase supplies 
of inferior quality. When this is so the loss 
occasioned thereby can only be traced indirectly, 
as in the case of fuel, already referred to. At 
different periods in the history of railroads the 
rails were, in many cases, of inferior quality. 
Times were not propitious, business was unprof- 
itable and the companies were poor. The desire 
to buy at a low figure, therefore, was strong. This 
was particularly true of the intermediate period 
between the use of iron and Bessemer steel. Man- 
ufacturers had, to a certain extent, lost the art 
of making the former cheaply and well and were 
not yet able to produce the latter at a rate the 
railroads were able to pay. The effect of the use 
of poor rails at this time was quickly discernible.* 
It was seen in many ways outside oi the cost of 
keeping the track in repair. It was perceptible 
in the disbursements for injuries; in the fees of 
coroners and surgeons; in the account for losses 
and damages to property; in expenditures for 
legal services, nurses and medicines; in repairing 
broken down bridges and culverts; in renewals 

performance of the duties connected with the purchase of sup- 
plies; to the limiting of the purchases to as few officials as 
possible, and to the placing in such positions only men experi- 
enced in the wants of railroads and in the knack of buying 
cheaply; men withal accustomed to the discharge of acts of 
trust and of long tried and approved integrity. 

* The length of time a rail will last is dependent (even upon 
a line having light traffic) upon its quality, the care with 
which it is laid, the number and quality of the ties and the 
character of the roadbed. 



560 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

of equipment, machiner}^ and tools; in outlay for 
labor of various kinds; in fuel used, and, finally, 
in diminished receipts. 

Many companies were slow in discovering the 
loss occasioned by the use of poor rails, and not 
a few were dilatory in effecting a remedy after 
the discovery. Why? Because it requires a 
knowledge of railways that every proprietor does 
not possess, to enable him to appreciate the fact 
that unless he maintains a good roadbed and 
track favorable results will not long attend the 
operations of his property. 

The smoothness and elasticity of a track affect 
directly the cost of keeping the rolling stock in 
condition, so that the cost of a poor track is quite 
as apparent in expenditures for keeping the equip- 
ment in serviceable order as in the disbursements 
for the track itself. 

Only an experienced and sagacious manager 
can withstand the seductive glamour of an arti- 
cle of prime necessity offered at a low rate. The 
fact that its ultimate cost, if of poor quality, will 
be out of all proportion to the temporary saving 
is lost sight of. The immediate reduction in the 
cost of operating and the glory of effecting the 
reduction is too great for a weak man to with- 
stand. This would not be the case to the extent 
it is if so great a proportion of the loss suffered 
in consequence of the purchase of inferior mate- 
rial were not covered up under foreign headings 
and remained, therefore, unsuspected. The track 
of a railway is the largest single expense, and it 



MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION. 561 

is in connection with this that the greatest, and 
in many instances the most unadvised, efforts at 
economy are attempted. The harm that ensues 
is apparent in collateral expenses, but it is im- 
possible to determine the amount of these even 
approximately. Actual outlay for track involves 
the cost of transporting the new material and the 
removal of the old, the cost of loading and un- 
loading, the expense of handling, the withdrawal 
of the old material and the insertion of the new 
in the track; the value of the new supplies, less 
the amount received for the old; the material 
destroyed and injured in making renewals; the 
wear and tear of tools; in the delay of business, 
and the increased wear and tear arising from 
imperfect alignment of track which the changes 
temporarily occasion. These are the principal 
items. Their cost to a company cannot, in 
every case, be ascertained, but whatever the 
amount may be it is aggravated by the use of 
poor rails, whether inadvertently or otherwise. 
It is only by keeping such facts in mind that we 
can appreciate the importance to a company of 
purchasing good material. Only a wealthy com- 
pany, it is apparent, can do otherwise without 
endangering its safety. 

What I have said in relation to inferior rails 
applies also to inferior ties. A poor rail may be 
sold, but a tie is practically worthless when no 
longer fit for use in the track.* Besides the fact 

* Huntington, in his unique treatise on railroad track, how- 
ever, points out, though in a somewhat forced way, some of the 
32 Vol. 13 



56i> l^UILDINO AND BEPAIRINO MAILWATS. 

that a worn-out tie possesses no value, its removal 
is diflBcult. The alignment of the track is also 
seriously disturbed.* 

The expenses attending a poor bridge are rela- 
tively greater than those of a poor rail or tie. 
The cost of removing such a structure may, 
indeed, exceed the original outlay. Leaving out 
of consideration, however, the cost of mainte- 
nance of cheap bridges, the incidental outlay they 
involve for persons killed or injured, property 
destroyed or damaged and the injury suffered by 
equipment (to say nothing of loss of revenue a 
company suffers by the distrust engendered in the 
mind of the community) is out of all proportion 
to the saving effected by the erection of an unsafe 
structure of this kind. 

In reference to structures of a temporary char- 
acter, such as depots, platforms, roundhouses, 
workshops and water stations, that we find 

uses to which old and worn-out ties may be put, namely: " To 
patch temporarily broken fences; to make footings for washing 
embankments; for temporary platforms for piling rails; fuel for 
drying sand at sand stations; fuel for sectionmen. Sawing up 
old ties for wood is also profitable to a company in many locali- 
ties." They may also be used by a company for starting fires 
and other purposes. 

* Ties manufactured from what we call soft woods are not 
only not able to withstand the w^ear and tear of a heavy busi- 
ness, but they decay much more quickly than oak and other 
hard wood ties. The cost, however, of transporting the latter 
and inserting them in the track is not greater than for the 
former; it is, therefore, manifestly for the interest of every 
company to use the latter when the difference in the purchase 
price is not greater than the subsequent difference in the length 
oi time the ties will last. 



MAINTENANCE AND OPE BAT ION. 563 

clustered about many new enterprises, the inci- 
dental loss to the company erecting them in 
many cases far exceeds the cost of a first-class 
edifice. It follows, therefore, that the erection 
of such structures is inexcusable, except in 
those instances (not so frequent as supposed) 
where the necessities of a company render it un- 
avoidable. 

The injury to rolling stock and machinery by 
the use of inferior lubricants aptly illustrates the 
folly of buying material of inferior quality. The 
difference in first cost is oftentimes so marked, 
however, as to secure the purchase of the latter 
article. When this is so the charge upon the books 
for lubricants appears as a reduction of outlay 
and is quite likely to excite the admiration of 
directors and owners. The actual cost is never 
known, but comparisons will exhibit increased 
consumption. The destruction engendered will 
appear in the returns under other headings, which 
seemingly have no connection with it. The extra 
outlay will be seen in disbursements for repairs 
and renewals of equipment, for new axles, brasses 
and other parts of machinery, and in all the 
accounts incident to the working of trains, such 
as repairs of equipment, disbursements for people 
killed and injured, losses, damages, and services 
of lawyers and doctors. The increased cost may 
be traced step by step through all the labyrinths 
of the service, in the stoppage of trains, in the 
diminished usefulness of the plant, and in the 
myriad of expenses incident to the detention of 



564 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

business. Every conceivable expense follows in 
the train of hot journal boxes, broken axles, torn 
up tracks, derailed trains and kindred mishaps 
that ever attend the use of poor lubricants. 

In connection with the cost of wheels, axles, 
frames, springs, bolts, nuts and kindred applian- 
ces, we find, as in the case of oils, that the relative 
cost of a good and a bad article is not alone 
manifest in the first price. The cost of the poor 
article will further appear in added disbursements 
for people killed and injured, losses and damages 
and all the multitudinous expenditures that 
attend accidents to trains. 

Other interests, foreign to the immediate pur- 
pose, attend the use of supplies. It frequently 
occurs that the purchase of material is made to 
facilitate the securing of business or the placating 
of someone. When this is so, the price represents 
the value of the article and the benefit derived 
from its purchase. Many other things, such as a 
desire to foster local interests, affect the source 
from which supplies are drawn, inducing the 
purchaser, it may be, to pay a rate above the mar- 
ket price. In such cases, of course, the indirect 
gain is expected to oft'set the direct loss. Prac- 
tices of this kind are of frequent occurrence. 
Generally, however, it may be said that the emer- 
gency that warrants going out of the general 
market to purchase presupposes an extreme 
case, and one, therefore, not to be considered as 
a factor in a general review of the procurement 
of railway material. 



MAINTENANCE AND OPEBATION. 565 

The interests of a railroad are identical with 
those of the country in which it operates. It en- 
deavors, consequently, in every way to advance 
the affairs of its co-laborers — the local producer 
and consumer. But this assistance, however val- 
uable and real, never appears under specific head- 
ings on the books of the railroad. When aid is 
extended, as I have shown in the purchase of sup- 
plies, the added cost cannot be fixed, under any 
head, in the accounts. Separation, therefore, is 
not attempted; the total price paid for the mate- 
rial is charged to operating expenses, although a 
portion might, with more propriety, be charged 
to traffic. Particular operating accounts are 
thus burdened with disbursements foreign to 
their purpose. 

Before attempting to fix the cost of operating 
a company's property, it is apparent from the 
foregoing, we must know the circumstances at- 
tending its purchase and use of materials, includ- 
ing prime cost, indirect cost, distance supplies are 
hauled, cost of hauling, service of equipment, ex- 
pense of substitution, storage, shrinkage, interest, 
insurance, etc. 

The difference between affairs as they exist 
and as they are supposed to exist in the purchase 
and use of supplies, illustrates very fairly the dif- 
ference between practice and theory in railway 
operations. To the amateur the railway prob- 
lem is like a shallow cistern that may be dipped 
dry with a drinking cup, but to the practical 
worker and thinker it represents, in its economy, 
the problems of a mighty sea. 



:^6Q BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

Management of railroads requires that those 
who direct affairs shall be men trained in the 
discharge of business, fitted to govern, whose 
judgment has been trained by years of observa- 
tion, practical work and restraint. Men self- 
controlled and self-contained, forcible, luminous 
in their conception of great problems, and yet 
capable of employing simple and economical ex- 
pedients. They must possess, in fact, the busi- 
ness ability of the trader with the executive force 
of the general and statesman. They must be edu- 
cated in minor offices. No railway can afford to 
educate an officer in the position of an officer; it 
is at once too expensive and too demoralizing. 



The cost of working a property is greatly af- 
fected by the quality of the traffic and the length 
of haul. This is, perhaps, more particularly the 
case with freight than passenger business, for the 
reason that the former entails current expenses 
unknown to the latter. 

The expenses of railway companies now en- 
tailed for loading, unloading and storing freight 
are, in many respects, foreign to the original in- 
tent and purpose of common carriers, and, in 
many instances, not necessarily a part of their 
office. 

In some countries, notably in Great Britain, 
railway companies contract with teaming com- 
panies or employ carts of their own to haul 



MAINTEN^iNCE AND OFEBATION. 567 

merchandise to and from stations. Much of the 
freight, however, is loaded by the shipper directly, 
upon the cars.* The freight rate charged by 
English companies does not uniformly include 
either the cost of loading, unloading or covering 
the goods. When such services are performed by 
the railway it makes a special charge therefor. 
It also makes an additional charge, in many cases, 
for cost of building and working side tracks. In 
America, on the other hand, it is usual for tho 
railroad companies to load and unload freight, 
and while they do not generally attend to the col- 
lection or delivery of freight at terminal points, 
they nevertheless place it in a secure warehouse, 
which they generally own and control.f 

No direct charge is made in America for load- 
ing or unloading, no matter what the length of 
haul. Nor is anything exacted specifically for 
the use of a company's warehouses, except in 
those cases where goods remain for an unreason- 
able length of time. A charge for demurrage is 
made in the case of cars that are not unloaded 



* The box or inclosed freight car so universally in use in 
America is little known upon English lines, the flat or open car 
being used by them, merchandise loaded upon it being covered, 
when necessary, with a tarpaulin. This vehicle is much lighter 
than the box car; indeed, it is much shorter and lighter than 
our flat or open car. 

f The exception to this rule is in the case of express com- 
panies, who conduct what in England is denominated " the par- 
cels traffic;" these companies not only collect much of the 
freight transported by them, but deliver it (in large towns) to 
the consignee, the charge for this service (within certain Um- 
its) being embraced in the general rate. 



568 BUILDING AND MEPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

within a specified time, if it is the duty of the 
consignee to unload the freight. 

No charge is made by American companies for 
the use of side tracks. 

In England a special charge is made when 
traflBc is hauled but a short distance. Thus, the 
rate for six miles, or any fraction thereof, may 
be the same as for twelve miles. This is in addi- 
tion to the supplementary charge for loading, 
unloading, etc. Our custom with respect to this 
class of business is doubtless in practice not 
materially different, but the basis for the charge 
is not so well understood. The omission operates 
in favor of the shipper.^ 

The practices in this country in connection 
with loading, unloading and care of freight have 
assumed the habit of a fixed custom, though the 
duty does not properly fall within the province 
of a carrier. This is demonstrated, if demonstra- 
tion were necessary, by the discrimination which 
companies make against particular classes of 
freight, a discrimination the public acquiesces in. 
It is, perhaps, true that the labor can be per- 
formed by the railway to better advantage and 
at less expense than by its patron, but this does 

* In reference to the manner of settlement between the 
different lines for through traffic, or that which passes over 
several lines of railway, it is said to be the custom in England 
to deduct from the gross amount charged for performing the 
service a specified sum for terminal expenses, varying in 
amount as between London and provincial towns; this sum is 
apportioned between the companies receiving and delivering 
the traffic, after which the balance is divided upon the basis 
agreed upon, whatever it may be. 



MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION. 569 

not alter the fact. It was at one time supposed 
that the community would provide cars required 
to do business, and would attend personally to 
the loading and unloading of freight, while the 
railway company would provide the track, and 
in some cases the motive power. 

It is the office of a carrier to transport the 
freight that is offered, not necessarily to load 
and unload it; that is the business of the owner. 
However, it is my purpose in this connection to 
notice the custom, not to suggest its change or 
modification. 

Practices are not uniform as to the articles 
which owners must load or unload, but vary 
according to real or supposed necessities of busi- 
ness. Usually, however, our carriers discrimi- 
nate only against coarse articles of freight, such 
as are bulky and not easily damaged, such as 
coal, grain, lumber, ores, pig iron and similar 
articles. 

From the foregoing it is apparent that a com- 
pany's outlay for station labor, warehouse and 
yard room is largely dependent upon the charac- 
ter of its business. If made up of freight which 
the carrier undertakes to handle, the terminal 
charges will be much greater than in other 
cases. 

These charges are incidental in character and 
contemplate an outlay for grounds, tracks, ware- 
houses, platforms, yards, elevators, depots and 
other machinery necessary to the economical and 
expeditious discharge of business. They vary so 



570 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

greatly that before attempting to compute the 
expense of conducting a traffic their cost must be 
carefully ascertained. 

Terminal facilities, moreover, that cost but 
little at one point may involve enormous outlay 
at another. Thus, depot grounds and yard room 
that can be provided for a few dollars in an 
interior tov^n, cost millions of dollars in a 
great city. * The interest upon the capital 
invested in these facilities, whatever it may be, 
becomes a fixed charge upon the property and 
must not be overlooked in determining the cost 
of doing business. 

In reference to cost of handling different kinds 
of traflBc, the greatest difference exists, but the 
extent of this difference is little appreciated. 
Thus, the expense for station labor in connection 
with the movement of fifty thousand cars of coal, 
earning perhaps a million of dollars, will hardly 
be more than that for handling a few crocks of 
butter or the worn-out effects of an itinerant 
preacher. Differences of this character con- 
tinually occur in the operations of railroads and 
will ever confound those who seek to make a law 
or institute a practice that place them upon a 
common level. As soon might 'we prescribe a 
given quantity of food, drink, air or clothes for 
men, without reference to their appetite, health, 
labor or size. Terminal expenses, permanent and 
otherwise, are not governed by the revenue 
derived from a business, but are the same in all 
cases, whether the traffic is desirable or otherwise. 



MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION. 571 

Nor are terminal expenses affected by the length 
of the haul. Thus, it costs as much to handle a 
consignment of merchandise destined to a neigh- 
boring town as to a point a thousand miles away; 
the number of laborers is the same, the clerical 
force the same, the facilities the same, the risk of 
accident and theft the same. 

The through traflBc of railroads may be said to 
represent the long haul in contradistinction to 
local business, which represents the short haul, 
and while the terminal expenses are the same in 
either case, local traflBc necessitates frequent stop- 
page of trains, with all the expenses incident 
thereto. They form a sensible burden, never to 
be lightly considered or overlooked in estimating 
the diflSculties and expenses of operating. 

Within certain bounds the profitableness of a 
business is dependent upon the length of haul. 
It is an aphorism in railway management that 
the equipment of a company earns money only 
when in motion. Anything, therefore, which 
retards that motion, acts to the disadvantage of 
a carrier. 

To continue: the station facilities necessary to 
accommodate the suburban travel of a metro- 
politan road must be quite as elaborate as for a 
more profitable business — for long haul traflBc, 
for instance. The expense that attends it is 
much greater than for ordinary traflBc, because 
it is fixed in cities or their immediate neighbor- 
hood, where values have reached the highest 
point. This business, instead of paying a higher 



572^' BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 

rate than traffic requiring less costly accommo- 
dations, is awarded a less rate. This difference 
is oftentimes more than is justified by the quan- 
tity handled. A low rate is given from a desire 
to stimulate traffic. It represents also the differ- 
ence between wholesale and retail business. 
Suburban residents represent an average haul 
each day equal to so many trains (a fixed quan- 
tity), while isolated passengers, gathered at widely 
separated points, represent the retail element of 
trade. 

While it is true that terminal expenses inci- 
dent to traffic must be considered in fixing the 
rate, it is also true that no recognized or uniform 
practice can be observed. The judgment of the 
compiler of the tariff, based on the peculiarities 
of the business, must determine the rate for the 
time being. A more formal basis is not practicable. 

Few companies could provide the terminal 
facilities they do if their trade were wholly local. 
The profits they derive from through business 
enable them, for the moment, to carry the bur- 
den of the less profitable traffic. 

It is a generally accepted belief that the local 
business of a road is the more remunerative, for 
the reason that it is not subjected to the disturbing 
influences which surround through traffic. This 
was the case at one time, but long ago ceased to 
be so. Multiplicity of roads paralleling and in- 
tersecting each other oftentimes compels them 
to compete for local business quite as much as 
for through traflBc. 



I 



MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION. 573 

The cost of soliciting business is to some ex- 
tent a terminal expense. It varies greatly upon 
different lines. The expense of one line for ad- 
vertising and soliciting agents, for illustration, 
will be treble that of another. This difference 
may be occasioned by the disadvantages of the 
company's line or the special character of the 
business. 

It will be seen from the foregoing brief and 
imperfect consideration of the subject that spe- 
cial items of cost connected with the handling of 
traffic cannot be overlooked in studying the dis- 
bursements of railways. This fact should be re- 
membered by legislators and others in attempting 
to enforce uniform rates and conditions. Each 
company must be considered apart and the con- 
ditions attending its traffic duly and exhaustively 
studied. 



CHAPTEK XIII. 

MAINTENANCE — FIXED OPERATING EXPENSES. 

Expenditures do not grow relatively with a 
traflBc. The outlay upon a heavily worked line 
is not proportionately as great as upon a line less 
busy. One of the reasons is that a large propor- 
tion of the disbursements of a company comes 
under what are called fixed expenses. Many 
expenses of this character are not affected at all, 
or only remotely, by an increase or decrease in 
business. However, these expenses are never the 
same relatively upon different roads."^ 

The fixed expenses of a railroad may be termed 
the minimum cost of operating. After they are 
provided for, every dollar of income a property 
can be made to earn without increasing such 
expenses, represents, obviously, a decided gain. 
This is well understood and represents a principle 

*Tlie term fixed expenses or charges is used in a double 
sense in railway nomenclature; first, it applies generally to the 
operating expenses, interest and rentals of railroad companies, 
and, second, to those expenses connected with the immediate 
working of the property that are not affected at all, or only 
lightly, by the amount of its traffic, such as superintendence, 
salaries of station agents, fiagmen at crossings, bridge tenders, 
etc. The last named should be called "fixed operating expenses" 
or «< fixed expenses," while the former should be called ** fixed 
charges." 

(574) 



FIXED OPERATI}iG EXPENSES, 575 

that lies at the foundation of the practice of 
granting a relatively low rate when the traffic is 
unusual in quantity or can be handled without 
adding relatively to cost. 

A brief summary of fixed expenditures may be 
properly given here; and, first, I may mention 
those relating to organization. This must be 
maintained with little, if any, reference to the 
amount or profitableness of the business done. 
All of a company's affairs are dependent upon the 
preservation, unimpaired, of its legal status. 
This obligation is imperative, and while the dis- 
bursements on this account may be small com- 
pared with many others, they are, nevertheless, 
considerable. 

Many expenses intervene, without much, if any, 
reference to the amount of traffic. Thus the mail 
must be carried and delivered punctually, no 
matter how small it may be; the convenience of 
the public must also be provided for at stations 
and elsewhere, and the number of specified trains 
(which the custom of the country or the charter 
of the company compels it to operate) must be 
run each day. In matters such as these the 
discretion of the management is very limited 
indeed. 

The outlay incident to the movement of trains 
is the same for wages of men engaged, whether 
the cars are loaded to repletion or travel com- 
paratively empty. This is also true, relatively, 
of other train expenses, such as fuel, oil, li j^hts, 
attendance, wear and tear, etc. Someone also, 



576 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

must be on hand at stations to open the com- 
pany's waiting rooms, see that they are kept 
clean and comfortable, preserve order in and 
about the buildings, keep the platforms and track 
unobstructed, ticket such passengers as present 
themselves, receive and discharge goods, and an- 
sv^er questions asked by patrons. 

The wages paid the incumbents of these offices 
must moreover be such as to secure faithful men, 
competent to perform the maximum amount of 
service required. And so it is with the organiza- 
tion of the force as a whole — with general and 
local officers, superior and petty heads, including 
foremen and others. Each must, in his place, be 
competent to perform, at a moment's notice, the 
greatest amount of service that the necessities of 
the company require. An exigency arises and 
passes in railway life like the flight of an express 
train. There is no time for consultation, no time 
to study text-books, no time to examine rules 
and regulations, or to write to superior officers 
for instructions; the company at such times must 
have someone on the spot competent to act. 
Such necessities must be provided for without 
reference to the general run of business, and in 
so far as this is so, they constitute a fixed expense. 

An agency that may, at any moment, be called 
upon to handle a hundred carloads of freight 
cannot be intrusted to the care of a person who 
could perhaps manipulate half that number with 
facility, but would break down under greater re- 
sponsibility. The agent must, in his turn, select 



FIXED OPEBATING EXPENSES. 577 

subordinate servants with a view to like contin- 
gencies. What is true in this respect of the agent 
and his assistants applies with equal force to con- 
ductors of trains, foremen of shops, track bosses 
and superintendents of bridges. It applies, with 
redoubled force, to managers. The exigencies of 
railway service require men of special training, 
of peculiar qualifications, of minute practical 
knowledge. There are no exceptions to this rule 
in any department or branch of the service. Su- 
pervisory officials, especially those in immediate 
charge of the property, must be as well skilled as 
the directing manager. They must possess gen- 
eral knowledge, as well as particular acquaintance 
with the immediate position they hold. This in- 
volves intimate acquaintance with the property 
as a whole — its defects, resources and peculiari- 
ties. This presupposes long association, years 
of observation and thought. Attainment is im- 
possible otherwise. Without prolonged associa- 
tion the knowledge oflBcials bring to the discharge 
of their duties is incomplete, oftentimes imprac- 
ticable. 

The personnel of a railroad organization may 
not, therefore, be changed hastily or unadvisedly 
without detriment, for the property is the crea- 
ture of the operative and its value dependent 
upon his capacity and fidelity. He must ever be 
considered in forming an estimate of its present 
or prospective value. 

In every department of railway service we dis- 
cover carefully selected men of capacity and 

33 Vol. (3 



olS BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 

resources^ the superiors of "their fellows, singled 
out with reference to present and prospective 
emergencies. From the character of these men 
we may judge intelligently of the discernment and 
trustworthiness of the managers. 

The importance of the duties (present and pros- 
pective) performed by various classes of officials 
is apparent in the compensation allotted them. 
The official in charge of a pass high up on a 
mountain side, or having the care of a difficult 
morass or hazardous piece of track, no matter 
where it may be located, is paid a higher rate of 
wages than his neighbor, whose skill and respon- 
sibility are less. Selections in every case are 
based on fitness. A track foreman who might 
be trusted in the absence of danger could not be 
depended upon to act with intelligence and pre- 
cision in case of a wreck or the washing away of 
a roadbed. A bridge superintendent who un- 
derstands how to keep in repair the property 
intrusted to his charge under ordinary circum- 
stances, might be exceedingly awkward if called 
upon at a moment's notice to construct an 
entire structure. In the same way a conductor 
who might know how and when to start or 
stop a train, how tickets should be collected or 
cars received into or detached from a train, would 
not, perhaps, know what to do in case his train 
was thrown from the track or lost its rights. 
All these things are thought of and anticipated. 

In the selection of men to fill petty offices of 
responsibility, as well as those of greater degree, 



FIXED OPERATING EXPENSES, 579 

every varying circumstance must be carefully 
considered by the appointing power. Selection 
or continuance in the service require, frequently, 
extra wages. Thus extra wages are paid some^ 
times to meet exigencies that never arise. These 
we may term constructive expenditures. They 
are much the same upon all lines, without refer- 
ence to the business done. 

The cost of caring for a property is not affected 
by what it earns to so great an extent as is gen- 
erally supposed. A competent and trustworthy 
manager must in any event be employed to look 
after its affairs. The amount paid him is dictated 
by the extent of the property and the ability and 
faithfulness of the man. This is true to a certain 
extent of all the officers of a company. The 
salaries of minor oflBcials are more dependent 
upon the business done. This is also true of sub- 
ordinate servants, but a large proportion con- 
stitutes a fixed expense, not dependent, except 
remotely, upon the amount or profitableness of 
the business. 

At the headquarters of every company an ex- 
pensive force must be maintained. * It is made 
up of assistants, and is the subsidiary brain of 
the enterprise, without which the organization 
would fall to pieces of its own weighto It con- 
sists of skilled men. They carry on the general 
business of the company as between the corpora- 
tion and the public; also as between the former 
and employes on the line of the road. They are, 
as a rule, discreet and able men, well disciplined 



580 BUILDING AND REPAIIiING liAILWAYS, 

in their offices, and commanding the respect of the 
public and the obedience of the employes of the 
company on the line. The number and salaries 
of these assistants are not materially influenced 
by the fluctuations of trade, except when it ex- 
tends over a considerable period of time. They 
may be said to be fixed in the offices they occupy. 
Increase or decrease of traffic does not affect 
them. The explanation of this is found in the 
difficulty of filling their places. The knowledge 
they possess is the result of laborious training 
and years of familiarity with their particular 
duties. Except when business is depressed for a 
very considerable period, it is inexpedient as well 
as expensive for a company to make any change 
or reduction in its general office force. A reduc- 
tion of wages is practicable, but not a reduction 
in number. 

The traffic of a company may be paralyzed by 
a great storm, or its business disturbed by the 
failure of a crop or through the diversion of 
trade, without lessening its fixed expenses. 

Up to a certain point, addition to traffic is not 
followed by corresponding increase in either the 
number or wages of employes. There is no in- 
crease in the number or pay of watchmen at 
crossings and bridges, track patrol, or persons in 
charge of tunnels or bridges. No increase in the 
number of agents at stations, of the principal 
ticket sellers, of the men employed in connection 
with the customary trains, of foremen and their 
assistants, busied in keeping the track in order, 



FIXED OPEBATIHG EXPENSES. 581 

or of the force at shops and roundhouses and 
depots of supply. 

When, however, traffic increases beyond a 
certain point, expenditures for wages will in- 
crease beyond what the profitableness of the 
added traffic warrants. This increase will con- 
tinue until the traffic again roaches a point 
where the maximum amount of labor is ex- 
acted. 

Within certain limits, the elasticity of every 
organization enables it to accommodate an in- 
crease of business without addition to its number, 
just as a considerable increase is possible in the 
number of guests at a hotel without any addition 
to the number of attendants. Let us suppose the 
maximum of this increase to be fifty guests. This 
number may be added without increased cost for 
service to the proprietor, but at this point the 
addition of a guest will necessitate the employ- 
ment of an additional clerk, another waiter, an 
assistant porter, and so on through the list of 
attendants. This outlay is, of course, out of all 
proportion to the added income and has, there- 
fore, the effect of increasing the relative cost of 
operating the house. It is, however, unavoidable, 
and so it is in the working of railroads. We will 
suppose a passenger train is added to the list of 
those already operated by a company. Only a 
small percentage of the patrons of this new train 
is made up of new passengers. The traffic of the 
line simply readjusts itself to the increased facil- 
ities. The convenibx^je which the new train offers 



582 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

the public will add a few passengers, but there is 
no marked addition to the business, and until 
there is an increase commensurate with the added 
facilities the company is a loser, for the reason 
that under the new order of things its train serv- 
ice is performing only the minimum labor of 
which it is capable, while before it performed 
the maximum amount. The same rule applies to 
freight trains and is noticeable in all departments 
of the service. At a certain time in the growth 
of a traffic, it thus appears, the outlay is much 
greater than the income. Subsequent growth of 
business may warrant the increase, or it may not. 
In determining such questions (and they are of 
continual occurrence in the operations of a rail- 
road) the judgment of the officer upon whom the 
responsibility rests is sometimes colored and con- 
fused, so that intelligent action is not to be ex- 
pected in every case. So far as the writer's 
observation extends, the only means of testing 
the possibilities of a company's trafiic is to add 
new trains. 

There is this to be remembered in connection 
with additions made to the number of employes 
of a well appointed railway company (in contra- 
distinction to a new enterprise), its well disciplined 
organization enables it to utilize the cheapest 
quality of labor of the kind it needs. This is 
impossible in the other case. The first only 
requires an increase of mechanical force, not of 
constructive ability. The effect of such addition 
is, of course, to reduce the average cost of doing 



FIXED OPEBATING EXPENSES. 583 

business; a consummation every manager labors 
unceasingly to bring about. 

The effect I have pointed out of determinate 
expenses or cost as it is influenced by labor of a 
certain character is quite as marked in other 
departments of the service. Thus, disbursements 
for interest on bonds are not affected even re- 
motely by fluctuations of business. This is 
equally true in many instances of taxes, assess- 
ments being based on the supposed value of the 
property rather than upon its revenue producing 
qualities. 

Many of the guaranties also w^hich business 
compels a company to enter into are not affected 
one way or another by earnings. 

The amount paid for rent of buildings and 
grounds is only nominally affected by the increase 
or decrease of earnings. Any permanent decline 
of business in the end necessitates a readjustment 
of contracts and leases, but as agreements con- 
nected with buildings and grounds are usually 
entered into for a series of years, the expenses 
they entail cannot be hastily diminished. 

Also the cost to a company of keeping its fences, 
gates and crossings in order is not increased or 
diminished, perceptibly, by the business it does. 
The amount disbursed for these purposes is de- 
pendent upon other causes, over which a com- 
pany has very little control. 

The expense of maintaining the permanent 
structures of a company depends quite as much 
upon natural influences as upon the business 



584 SUILDIlsG AND REP^UBING RAILWAYb, 

done. Under the most favorable circumstances 
bridges and culverts w^ill crumble, buildings will 
fall to the ground, fences, gates and crossings 
will succumb to climatic and other influences, 
embankments and cuts will be rendered unsafe, 
ditches will fill up, the roadbed will require bal- 
last and careful attention, and ties will decay 
and the rails become unfit for use. All these 
things will occur, whether business be light or 
heavy, if a constant stream of money is not 
poured out day by day. 

The expenses of a company also depend largely 
upon the nature of renewals. These, it is ap- 
parent, will be influenced by the length of time 
the property has been in operation and the 
thoroughness with which it was originally con- 
structed. 

At first, cost of maintenance will be very light 
upon a well constructed road, but with the lapse 
of time it will steadily increase, the maximum 
being reached at the point at which the average 
durability of such property is reached. This 
period will vary in different sections and under 
different circumstances, according to climate, 
nature of material used and amount of busi- 
ness done. Under ordinary circumstances, the 
average should not be reached under ten years, 
or whatever time may represent the average 
durability of rails, ties, spikes, equipment, plat- 
forms, fences, buildings, bridges, culverts and 
similar property. 



FIXED OPERATING EXPENSES. 585 

Generally, it may be said that the amount of 
business determines the duration of equipment, 
while weight and speed measurably determine 
the duration of rails. 

Turning to another feature of the case (the 
machinery of railroads), the difference between 
the wear and tear of that used and unused is not 
nearly so great as it would seem at first glance. 
The cost of preserving unemployed machinery in 
good order is not noticeably less, as every manu- 
facturer is aware, than the cost of keeping it in 
order when employed. 

The subtle influences of idleness are as destruc- 
tive to man's work in this case as idleness is to 
man himself. The machinery he constructs with 
such infinite care and labor requires constant 
attention, otherwise it quickly becomes worthless. 

The amount of fuel necessary to haul the mini- 
mum load of a train is a fixed charge. The fuel 
consumed by a locomotive hauling thirty cars is 
not relatively as great as when hauling one-third 
that number, yet the appurtenances necessary to 
the successful operation of the train are prac- 
tically the same; the lubricants used upon the 
locomotive are substantially the same; the lights 
and furniture are the same; the conflagrations 
which the locomotive causes are the same; the 
accidents are the sam e ; the number of incautious 
people killed or injured is the same; the num- 
ber of cattle run over and crushed is the same; 
the number of switches to be turned at meeting 
points is the same; the wages of the train force 



586 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

are the same; the telegraphic orders that pass 
back and forth between different train oflBcials 
are the same; all the varied expenses con- 
nected with the use of water are practically the 
same. 

As I have stated, the cost of keeping up the 
organization of a company is not noticeably dif- 
ferent, whether the business is large or small, 
productive or otherwise. The expenses which 
the laws require must be met without reference 
to receipts; bulletins must be ported as the law 
prescribes; tariffs must be promulgated, agree- 
ments made, notices of elections posted, trustees 
remunerated, traveling expenses met, complicated 
and expensive returns rendered, lawyers em- 
ployed, and insurance duly looked after. 

These expenses are in the main inherent and 
in no wise dependent upon the productiveness of 
business. When, therefore, we see a partially 
loaded train winding its way across the country, 
or remark a yard filled with idle equipment, we 
must not conclude that the owner has reduced 
his expenses to conform to the business he is 
transacting, or that it is possible for him to do 
so. On the contrary, we may truthfully believe 
that many of his expenses have not been lessened 
at all. And we may remember another fact, 
namely, that the owners are never disregardful 
of the circumstance that profits arise out of the 
business that is carried on after the fixed ex- 
penses have been met, and hence in fostering 
business they need no spur. To them, therefore, 



FIXED OPERATING EXPENSES. 587 

may safely be left the development of the busi- 
ness of their lines. Out of it grows their profit; 
without it their roads are worthless. No one is 
so much interested as they, no one so wise in the 
solution of vexed questions. 



CHAPTER XIT. 

MAINTENANCE — COST OF OPERATING AFFECTED 
BY FACILITIES. 

The cost of operating a road is affected favor- 
ably or otherwise according as its facilities are 
ample or not. 

To enable a company to secure the most favor- 
able results possible it must be able to carry 
forv^ard its repairs and renewals at the most 
opportune season of the year and have appliances 
fitted to their economical and rapid performance. 
It must be in good condition financially and pos- 
sess machinery fitted to its wants and adequate 
to carry on its work. 

Many of the differences noticeable in the cost 
of working railway properties are attributable to 
differences in facilities. 

A company that is not provided with adequate 
equipment for doing its business suffers many 
expenses that would under other circumstances 
be avoided. In addition to this loss, the traffic 
that it cannot for the moment accommodate will, 
when it can, seek other channels, and thus its 
revenue will be lost. Moveover, current expenses 
will be increased in many cases, while loss of 
business will swell the percentage of operating 
expenses to revenue. 

(688) 



FACILITIES AFFECT COST OF OPERATIXO. 5S9 

A superabundant equipment, on the other hand, 
is unprofitable to its owner. Its possession in- 
volves loss of interest on cost and the expense of 
keeping it in order. In addition to this, the effort 
to find employment for it is quite likely to lead 
its owners into excesses, of one kind or another, 
but mainly in the direction of unnecessary rate 
cutting and other foolish competitive efforts. 

The disposition of railway companies to en- 
croach upon each other, coupled with a belief 
inherent in the breasts of many of those who 
serve them that they can create business, has 
been the cause of many of the disasters that have 
wrecked railway properties. 

What I have said in reference to the necessity 
of restricting the machinery and rolling stock of 
a company within necessary bounds, applies 
equally to its property as a w^hole. While a prop- 
erty must be maintained at a point commensurate 
with the needs of business, it must stop there. 
Contingent wants that may never occur should 
not be anticipated, but left to be met w^hen the 
exigency arises. 

While owners thus restrict themselves they 
will remember that prosperity cannot be attained 
or maintained without adequate facilities. When 
needs are inadequately provided, revenue that 
should accrue for extending and strengthening 
the property is lost. A company thus unhappily 
situated cannot compete successfully with an 
alert rival. It is avoided by many who would, 
under other circumstances, give it support, w^hile 



590 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

its expenses are swollen unnecessarily by its 
improvidence. 

Railway managers, it may be said, understand 
the importance of keeping a property in good 
condition. The difficulty is, and always wall be, 
to make the owners equally alive to the fact. 
Absorbed in the prospect of a dividend, secure in 
the belief that the management will provide the 
necessary ways and means for meeting renewals 
and improvements, they lack apprehension and 
interest. They do not refuse to make provision 
for the company's wants, they simply ignore the 
matter. To meet together from time to time and 
authorize an expected dividend, is too often the 
consummation of earthly responsibility on their 
part. They listen with approval to the remarks 
of the chairman, congratulate the manager upon 
his energy and efficiency, and disperse, leaving 
him to get along as best he can. Thus, his wishes 
are disregarded and the strength of the property 
wasted. The truthfulness of this is apparent in 
many ways and it is needless to say that the 
losses resulting are always disproportionate to 
the saving effected. 

Innumerable instances might be cited, if neces- 
sary, to illustrate the necessity of a company 
supplying itself with needed appliances. Thus, a 
company that does not possess adequate tracks, 
convenient sidings or sufficient yard room can- 
not handle its traffic with the celerity and 
economy it could if it possessed such facilities. 
Again, the company that is able to make its track 



FACILITIES AFFECT COST OF OPERATING, 591 

repairs and renewals at the period of the year 
most advantageous for such work will be able, 
manifestly, to do so more economically than its 
less f ortungcte neighbor. It is essential, above all 
things, to the prosperity of a company, that it 
should be able to make its repairs and renewals 
as occasions for them arise. An unsafe bridge, 
an insecure culvert, or a defective axle or wheel 
may involve the destruction of a train which, 
with collateral losses, will amount to .thousands 
of dollars. And it must be remembered that the 
losses that result to a company from accidents of 
this kind can never be known, for the reason that 
they entail loss of public confidence in the 
methods of a company. Thus, to the known loss 
there must be added indirect loss occasioned by 
diversion of traffic. 

It is in details of operation that losses accruing 
from improvident management are most marked. 
Thus, a battered rail in the track of a busy line 
will so rack the equipment passing over it that 
the cost of repairs will many times outweigh the 
value of a new rail. The same is true of a line 
imperfectly ballasted, or one where the align- 
ment is wrong. 

The cost of keeping locomotives and machinery 
in good condition is very much dependent upon 
the carefulness with which they are kept cleaned 
and housed when not in use. The rolling stock 
that is kept well painted and in good repair is not 
so expensive to maintain as the equipment that 
is neglected and, while present outlay for repairs, 



592 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 

cleaning, housing and painting may be a burden, 
it will result in more satisfactory returns to 
owners than a contrary course. 

What I have said in reference to machinery 
and rolling stock applies to every branch of the 
service. Thus, the increased disbursements to 
meet interest on money expended for overhead 
bridges or viaducts at busy points is, in many 
cases, more than counterbalanced by freedom 
from accidents and saving in wages and other 
expenses. 

The wisdom of providing needed appliances for 
conducting business is perceptible, everywhere, 
in reduced expenses. Thus, the introduction of 
a new piece of machinery, a copying press, a pat- 
ent ink, a new blank or other contrivance in- 
tended to simplify or cheapen, frequently renders 
a reduction of the force possible, or prevents an 
increase otherwise unavoidable. Innumerable 
illustrations of this nature might be cited. 

The usefulness and perpetuity of a plant is in- 
definitely heightened and prolonged by its main- 
tenance at a high state of efficiency. This is 
particularly the case with machinery and equip- 
ment, as I have noticed. Such property should 
be maintained at the maximum state of efficiency. 
The life of a car, locomotive or stationary engine 
may be greatly prolonged by prompt repair of 
the various parts as rendered necessary, while 
neglect will hasten the general breaking up. 
The necessity of maintaining property is well 
understood by managers; but they are often 



FACILITIES AFFECT COST OF OPERATING. 593 

overruled in the matter, not being allowed the 
funds necessary to carry on needed repairs. 
There can be no doubt of the shortsightedness 
of such a policy, and a company thus adminis- 
tered is an unsafe enterprise to invest in. 



34 Vol. ii;^ 



CHAPTER XV. 

MAINTENANCE — THINGS THAT ENTER INTO THE 
MAINTENANCE OF A RAILROAD. 

Railway maintenance presents itself under 
various aspects, such as the preservation of the 
material property, the maintenance of the rights 
of railways under their charters or acts of incor- 
poration, the building up of the esprit de corps of 
the forces (a matter of vital importance to the 
public, the owner and the employe), the educa- 
tion of officers and employes in the things that 
pertain to railway operations, and so on. 

All these phases of the subject receive nrore or 
less attention throughout these volumes. They 
are a part of the science of railways and not the 
less important because not forming a part of the 
daily thoughts of oflBcers and employes. 

The particular phase of railway maintenance 
which I wish to consider in this chapter relates 
mainly to the effect of certain influences. 

I have mentioned in another place the possi- 
bility that through the unwise exactions of labor 
it may some time be found necessary to close up 
a railway, or group of railways, for a longer or 
shorter period, because of the impossibility of 
procuring men to operate them. Such a contin- 
gency does not seem likely, nor did it seem likely 

(594) 



THWGS AFFECTING MAINTENANCE. ^^5 

a few years ago, when a great system, extending 
over several states, was suddenly paralyzed for a 
similar reason. Yet the event actually occurred. 
Moreover, the circumstances were such as to 
suggest the possibility of its recurrence. Let us 
suppose that for some reason every railroad man, 
or the great bulk of them, struck, as they did in 
the particular section I have referred to. In such 
event, the operation of railroads would be impos- 
sible. No other course would be left to owners 
but to shut up their property. 

Where labor has the disposition to organize 
and act in concert over a great extent of coun- 
try, everything is possible. The nineteenth cen- 
tury is peculiarly the age of possibilities of this 
nature. Centralization is its watchword. We 
observe it in the growth of corporations, man- 
ufactories and other enterprises. It was the 
concentration of capital, perhaps, that suggested 
the centralization of labor — the delegating to an 
agent the right to arbitrarily control the many. 
The co-operative organization of labor, however, 
is more extended than that of capital. The lat- 
ter is necessarily restricted and isolated in its 
efforts. Labor groups great masses of men em- 
ployed far apart over wide areas of country. 
If these organizations are not wisely governed, 
they will ultimately involve a corresponding 
centralization of capital. Certainly they will 
render the continuance of business under exist- 
ing conditions impossible. Not only will the 
railway system be broken up, but all other 



590 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

industrial interests will be disturbed, and in 
many cases destroyed. 

In the event railways were closed under cir- 
cumstances such as I have named, the duration 
of the suspension would depend very largely on 
the disposition and ability of the people to pro- 
tect those w4io sought to reopen them. Mean- 
while the calamities that would grow out of the 
upheaval would require many years to heal. 

What conditions would attend a general cessa- 
tion of railway operations? Could the owners of 
railroads permit their property to lie idle? Do 
railroad companies possess the passive element 
that is so great a source of strength to capital 
invested in other enterprises ? It is here that a 
secret of the power of capital lies. Its growth, 
beneficent influence and perpetuity depend upon 
the possession of this source of strength. When 
no longer able to exercise this negative force, it 
wall cease to exist. 

What is the effect of idleness upon railroad 
property? Wherein does it deteriorate? What 
is the extent of the deterioration? What out- 
lay does the maintenance of a railway involve? 
Should owners suffer a great loss in the effort to 
maintain the rights of their property, or should 
they effect an immediate settlement with disaf- 
fected employes, on the best terms possible? It 
is upon such questions that the contingency of 
a railway company closing its affairs for six 
months, or a year, or two years, may hinge, and 
upon the wisdom and courage governing those 



THINGS AFFECTING MAINTENANCE. 597 

making the decision, the future of mankind may 
depend. 

Let us suppose that a railway company decides, 
in view of the fact that it can no longer operate 
its property in harmony with what it considers 
to be its interest and the interest of the public, to 
close its business until such time as its just rights 
are accorded. 

What would be the expense of maintaining its 
property under such conditions? The question 
is an interesting one and suggests careful inquiry. 

In the event of the suspension of a railway, 
what would be the effect upon the property? 
What would be the minimum amount it would 
be necessary to expend to preserve it from seri- 
ous deterioration ? These questions cannot be 
definitely answered. Having no income, cost, it 
is manifest, would have to be raised by assess- 
ments if no reserves were laid by to meet such 
contingencies. But in regard to reserves: Is it 
not incumbent upon every company to possess, 
according to its ability, a reserve fund of this 
nature? Is it not a part of the machinery of 
maintenance? Tlie fund need not be unproduc- 
tive. Judiciously placed, it will be a source of 
income as well as strength. Its effect, moreover, 
will be evinced in the market value of a com- 
pany's securities. It will be in the nature of a 
guaranty, enabling its possessor to meet every 
call upon him. With such a fund taxes could 
be paid, sinking funds met, interest on mort- 
gages satisfied, and the expense of maintenance 



598 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

provided for a period proportionate to the ex- 
tent of the fund, without reference to current 
receipts. 

It may be assumed, I think, in the event a 
company found it necessary to suspend business, 
that the great bulk of its bondholders would 
waive interest payments for awhile. The reserve 
fund would provide for the balance. The 
amount of the fund should depend upon the 
amount of taxes, interest, tolls, sinking funds and 
expense of maintenance. Expenditures for the 
last named purpose are imperative. They must 
be met as they accrue, otherwise the owner suf- 
fers enormous usury for neglect to preserve his 
property. Would the cost of maintenance be so 
great as to prevent the proprietor meeting it? I 
think not, if he possessed a moderate reserve fund. 

Stripped of all glamour, railway property dif- 
fers very little from other property used in manu- 
facturing, except that it is scattered over a wide 
territory. In the case of private manufacturers, 
their property lies within a narrow limit and 
when not in use the gates are shut and the pub- 
lic excluded, so that, no matter how great its 
value, its guardianship is compassed within the 
care of a watchman. He not only serves to pro- 
tect the property, but helps to prevent its deteri- 
oration. Unfortunately, this simple disposition 
is impossible in the case of railroad property. 
Widely scattered, it is everywhere exposed. Its 
greatest security lies in the diflPiculty of destroy- 
ing or removing it. This renders it possible for 



THINGS AFFECTING MAINTENANCE. 599 

the police force of a country to look after its 
protection (if it is so inclined) without material 
outlay. This feature would be of especial value 
to a company compelled to stop business. Only 
that portion of its property endangered by fire 
would require especial guardianship. Even here 
the risk would be slight. Moreover, in consider- 
ing the safety of railroad property under condi- 
tions such as I have named, we must remember 
that the state must aid the proprietor, he being 
a taxpayer. In the event it does not, it must 
reimburse him for any damage he suffers. 
Losses, therefore, that arise from the acts of 
mobs or lawless combinations must be reim- 
bursed and thus will not fall upon the proprie- 
tors of railroads, except in so far as they are 
taxed with others. The exercise of reasonable 
precautions in the preservation of the property of 
a railroad is, however, under all circumstances a 
duty. This duty railway companies have never 
disregarded. So that, in the event they closed 
their properties, they would still continue to ex- 
ercise general and constant watchfulness. The 
expense of this would be chargeable to mainte- 
nance. Would the duty require special watch- 
men, or would the force required to keep up the 
organization be sufficient? I think the latter. 
In determining, therefore, the force necessary to 
maintain a property, we also cover its protecting 
force, except in isolated cases. 

The maintenance of the property of a railroad 
involves many things not capable of demonstra- 



600 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 

tion in advance; contingencies that we cannot 
foresee nor estimate, because dependent upon 
circumstances and the peculiar features of a 
property. 

In considering the cost of maintaining a road, 
the cost of maintenance of organization must not 
be overlooked. This latter, hov^ever, in the case 
of a property closed to business, would depend 
upon whether the cessation was for a long or 
short period. If the former, the cost would not 
be nearly so great as if the stoppage were for 
a short period. If the cessation were likely to 
extend over a long period, the traflBc organiza- 
tion, or that portion of the force connected with 
or growing out of the conduct of business, could 
be wholly dispensed with, or so greatly reduced 
as to be no longer distinguishable as an organiza- 
tion. If, however, the stoppage were only for a 
short or indefinite period, it would be necessary 
to preserve at least the nucleus of an organiza- 
tion, such portion of the force as would render 
the resumption of business practicable without 
great delay.* 

If the stoppage were likely to continue over a 
long period, many expenses that under other 
circumstances would be necessary, might be 
avoided. Thus the cost of keeping up the road 
at a point that would permit the daily movement 

* Unless, indeed, it was assumed that the whole force might 
be brought together again at will, in which event the whole 
traffic force might be dispensed with. This is what would prob- 
ably be done. 



THINGS AFFECTING MAINTENANCE. 601 

of trains at ordinary rates of speed would not be 
required. It would not be necessary to repair 
from day to day the inroads pf storms or the 
damages caused by frost, and expenses attending 
the use of bridges, culverts, buildings and ma- 
chinery might be wholly avoided, or it would be 
necessary at best to give them only cursory atten- 
tion. Effort would be directed merely to pre- 
serving the property from permanent injury. 
Thus maintained, considerable time would be 
required to place it in shape for resuming active 
operations when the embargo was lifted. Build- 
ings would have to be put in order, tracks re- 
paired, bridges and culverts looked after, and a 
thousand things attended to before general re- 
sumption would be possible. The delay would 
be unavoidable, as the resources of the strongest 
company would not warrant it in keeping up its 
property at the maximum point of efficiency 
throughout an indefinite period. In attempting, 
therefore, to determine the cost of maintain- 
ing a property without reference to traffic, 
all the conditions must be known. If resump- 
tion of business were likely to occur within 
a reasonable time, the expense of maintenance 
would not be much less than during active 
operations. 

The disintegration of property from natural 
causes is very nearly the same, whether used or 
not. If cessation of business were likely to 
extend over an indefinite period, th^ advisability 
of reducing expenses would be so great that we 



602 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

may be sure every outlay would be cut down to 
the lowest possible figure."^ 

The maintenance of a property covers many 
great expenses arising from natural causes. 
Little has been done to determine the amount of 
these expenses aside from traffic. Few things are 
less understood. Every expense being primarily 
due to traffic, no attempt has been made to 
effect a separation. Business being the incentive 
to construct a railway, the whole cost of operat- 
ing is properly chargeable thereto. Thus, rates 
must conform to cost, or if they fall short bank- 
ruptcy follows. Many expenses do not depend 
except primarily on traffic, but in attempting to 
separate the cost of maintenance arising from 
natural causes from that due to traffic, I do not 
wish to be understood that such expenditures are 
distinct from traffic or that traffic has no obliga- 
tion to bear the burden. 

Any attempt to separate the fixed expenses of 
maintenance from those occasioned by traffic 
must be largely speculative, but a separation, 
however imperfect, cannot but possess great 
interest to those who own and operate railways. 
It enables them to view many questions from a 
higher standpoint than they otherwise would, and 
proves valuable in directing inquiry into other 

* It is possible, in the event a railroad company found it 
impossible to operate its property, that the wisest course to 
pursue would be to dismiss the whole force. Such a course, it 
is probable, w^ould be thought the safer one to pursue and the 
one most likely to bring about a quick and satisfactory settle* 
ment. 



THINGS AFFECTING MAINTENANCE, 603 

and collateral subjects. Knowledge is not of so 
much value for a specific thing as for its contin- 
gent revelations and the thoughts it suggests. 
And so it will prove here. Even the most imper- 
fect statement of the expenses of maintenance of 
railways affords suggestions in other directions 
to those who do not regard the information in 
itself of value. Thus, while a manager may not 
care what relation fixed expenses of maintenance 
bear to total expenses, yet the information is 
valuable to him in other directions or in special 
instances. Take the case of track rails for illus- 
tration. Experts with whom I have communi- 
cated as to the relative deterioration of rails from 
climate and traffic, have stated that a rail would 
remain fit for use forever, if trains were not run 
over it. Others put the deterioration from 
climatic causes at two per cent. ; others again at 
five per cent., and so on. As a matter of fact, the 
deterioration of rails from climatic causes, while 
not great, is marked and cumulative. Deteriora- 
tion of other material is much greater. How- 
ever, I cannot enter here into a scientific dis- 
cussion of the effect of climatic infiuences 
upon material. I am not competent to do so. 
I merely cite the case of rails to illustrate 
the lack of information on the subject by those 
whose duties lie wholly in this particular depart- 
ment. 

The natural decay of railway property is, in 
many cases, much greater than the damage occa- 
sioned by use. Where the business is great the 



604 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

relation of fixed expense of maintenance to traflSc 
is, of course, less. 

Whatever a property suffers from natural de- 
cay is a fixed expense. Cost of organization is 
also, to a certain extent, a fixed charge. It is, 
however, never the same. It is much less, rela- 
tively, for a company actively engaged than when 
the contrary is the case, for the reason that in the 
former instance a proportion of the cost is merged 
in current business. Thus, a superintendent will 
not only maintain the property, but also superin- 
intend its business. In either case he is essential, 
and while he must possess greater diversity of 
knowledge to enable him to attend to both these 
duties than to either singly, yet the increased 
cost is not great. 

The number of skilled laborers required in the 
operations of railroads is much greater than is 
supposed. They form, to a certain extent, part 
of the organization, but embrace many men not 
usually classed under this head. Everyone under- 
stands that an engineer must be technically qual- 
ified; the value of skill upon the part of the 
fireman is also understood. The necessity of 
technical knowledge on the part of machinists is 
equally well known; but minor officials, clerks 
and foremen must also possess technical skill of 
a high order, coupled with a practical knowledge 
of the property and its business. This is not so 
well known. No class of labor possesses so much 
technical knowledge as the clerical force of a 
railroad, and by clerical force I mean the body of 



THINGS AFFECTING MAINTENANCE. 605 

employes concerned in the movement of traffic, 
including those connected with accounts and 
finances. They are the fingers of the organiza- 
tion, and, in a great sense, its intellectual force. 
The affairs of a railroad are so great, and extend 
over so wide a range of thought, that managers 
can do little more than use the information the 
clerical force collects. This force, however, in 
the event of the stoppage of business on a rail- 
road, would have nothing to do, and, therefore, 
would be dispensed with. But only those who 
have watched the growth of a railroad, and the 
patience required to build up an efficient force, 
can estimate the loss its abandonment would 
finally entail. However, necessity does not rec- 
ognize distinctions of this kind. If, therefore, 
through upheavals of labor or other disorders, a 
railway were compelled to suspend business in- 
definitely, it would come out of the struggle 
stripped of its organization in this respect. No 
attempt, therefore, need be made here to deter- 
mine the fixed expenses for such railroads on this 
account. 

A fixed expense of Organization (or Manage- 
ment) under normal conditions is the pay of 
officers and employes necessary to the conduct of 
traffic. This force embraces the management, 
heads of departments and chiefs of bureaus and 
their immediate assistants. Those, in fact, pos- 
sessing a knowledge of the departments and 
versed in the company's affairs. Such a force 
cannot be secured at will, and business cannot be 



606 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

carried on without it. It grows with the cor- 
poration, and should become more efficient every 
year. The necessary force of a road also em- 
braces the agents at stations, and if business is 
great, their immediate assistants; those, in fact, 
who possess high technical knowledge. They 
constitute a fixed charge. Those engaged in 
mechanical or simple work about the offices, 
warehouses and other buildings do not, as they 
may be replaced at will. 

The cost of watching a property is not a fixed 
expense, or at least is only partially so, as this 
duty may be performed by employes who form a 
part of the fixed cost. The nucleus of a train 
force is a fixed expense of maintenance. In the 
case of conductors and baggagemen it embraces, 
let us say, ten per cent, of the force. The skill 
of this body constitutes the nucleus of a complete 
organization. In the same way ten per cent, of 
the engineers and firemen may be denominated 
as fixed. Such a train force would prove ample 
to guard the rolling stock and machinery and 
maintain it in a high state of efficiency. 

The technical force retained by a company 
(under the conditions I have named) may be 
further utilized in the physical maintenance of 
the property, and thus serve a double purpose. 
Employes occupied in soliciting business do not 
constitute a fixed expense. Similarly, operat- 
ing expenses covering personal injuries, con- 
tingent expenses, stationery, printing, supplies, 
advertising and lubricants belong to traffic, or 



THINGS AFFECTING MAINTENANCE. 607 

if any portion is a fixed expense it is nominal 
only. 

The forces of a railroad that constitute a fixed 
charge will find, in the main, active employment, 
even if the property is closed. However, it does 
not necessarily follow that there would be no re- 
duction in the wages of this force. On the con- 
trary, it is probable that a very large reduction 
would be made. The necessity of such a course 
and its justness would be apparent, and would 
be cheerfully acquiesced in. The amount of this 
reduction would, it is probable, approximate fifty 
per cent. That it would involve hardship, goes 
without saying, but as this hardship would ex- 
tend to the owners of the property as well, it 
would be borne cheerfully. If the suspension 
were likely to be of long continuance, the re- 
duction would be even greater. However, fifty 
per cent, may, I think, be estimated as the aver- 
age. In reference to the force it would be neces- 
sary to discharge (in the event of suspension), it 
is probable the majority of the men would await 
re-employment. This would certainly be the 
case if the stoppage were not likely to be of long 
duration, or if the circumstances attending dis- 
missal did not involve personal animosities. It 
would be apparent to men thus situated that 
their interests would be more likely to be con- 
served by awaiting re-employment than by seek- 
ing engagement elsewhere. It might be necessary 
in some cases (as it would indeed be both politic 
and wise wherever possible), to allow this wait- 



608 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

ing force a small sum monthly. Such a course 
would be eminently humane, if the resources of a 
company permitted. I assume, of course, in sug- 
gesting this gratuity, that harmony of relation- 
ship exists between employer and employe. 

The best of feeling should ever be maintained 
between railroad companies and their employes. 
It is possible, indeed probable, that the latter may 
have more or less grievances, real and imagined, 
but that these grievances are such as to justify 
indifference or disloyalty is impossible. Nor can 
they be so great as not to be more likely to be 
amicably arranged by conciliatory measures than 
by strikes or other violent means. The interest 
of the proprietor in those who operate his prop- 
erty is too intimate, too vital, to permit him to 
disregard their welfare or to refuse to remedy 
just causes of complaint. 

And above all, employes should not, in enumer- 
ating their own grievances, forget those of the 
employer. No intelligent person who has ob- 
served the operation of corporations carried on 
by hired agents but must have noticed innumer- 
able instances of neglect on the part of such 
agents, of manifest inefficiency, gross wasteful- 
ness, inattention to duty, idleness, and other evi- 
dences of disregard of the interests of the owner. 
Every such instance is a legitimate and proper 
subject of complaint on his part, and while he 
may seek to prevent such acts, still his efforts in 
this direction, no matter how watchfully or intel- 
ligently directed, can never be wholly success! uL 



THINGS AFFECTING MAINTENANCE. 609 

Employes, therefore, while enumerating their 
grievances, should not be unmindful of those of 
their employer. 

In the case of a railroad, the identity of the 
proprietor is so covered up in the multiplicity of 
ov^ners, in the rules and regulations of the service, 
and in the acts of managers and others, that we 
cannot wonder the employe sometimes forgets 
there is an owner — a man like himself; and in do- 
ing so fails to recognize his rights and forgets his 
own duties and responsibilities. If the owner 
possessed greater personality, were present on the 
ground, were a person to whom the employe 
could listen and might appeal, he would appre- 
ciate his existence more vividly. In considering, 
therefore, the relations which exist between 
capital and labor in connection with railroads, 
the first thing for the employe to do is to dismiss 
his prejudices; to remember that if he, has^ 
grievances, so also has the owner, and that, as a' 
rule, the grievances of the latter are more real 
than those of the employe. No railway employe,' 
not blinded by passion, but knows that he is, as 
a rule, fairly treated. 

The grievances of employes are often more 
imaginary than real, and when real come, not 
from the owner, as a rule, but from those he is 
compelled to trust. The remedy does not, there- 
fore, lie in indiscriminate attacks upon property, 
but in an appeal to owners. 

Too great care cannot be exercised by employes 
of corporations not to confound the owner with 

35 Vol. 13 



610 BUILDING AND BEPAIBINQ RAILWAYS. 

the manager. The owner will never, it is safe to 
say^willf uUy or persistently disregard the welfare 
of his employes. Their interests are so inaliena- 
bly connected with his, that to treat them un- 
fairly would be suicidal. This truth is not always 
remembered by employes. No one who is depend- 
ent upon the good will and fidelity of others for 
the maintenance of his interests, like the owners 
of railroads are, can afford to permit them to 
remain in ignorance of his good intentions. On 
the contrary, his duty and interest alike demand 
that he should cultivate such relations with them 
as may, at all times, assure them of his friendly 
interest in their welfare. 

Men who intrust the management of their 
property to others must do so unqualifiedly, but 
such delegation of power should never extend to 
the relinquishment of the right and duty of look^ 
ing after the welfare of their employes. A pro- 
prietor will ever consult his welfare by such 
manifestation of interest in his servants, and any 
neglect to fulfill this cardinal duty of ownership 
will redound to his injury. By many owners 
manifestation of such interest is thought to be 
subversive of discipline. The answer to this is 
that when an owner cannot come in contact with 
his employes without jeopardizing discipline, it 
ought not to require an outbreak of his servants, 
or the destruction of his property, to convince 
him that there is a defect somewhere in the 
method of administering his property. Discipline 
that is dependent upon terrorism, upon ostracis- 



THINGS AFFECTING MAINTENANCE. Gil 

ing (or sequestrating) the employe, upon separat- 
ing him from the acquaintance or sympathy of 
the owner, is a gross perversion of responsible 
methods of government, and wherever practiced 
may be accepted as evidence of a disregard of 
the rights of owners. If the history of corpora- 
tions in the United States teaches one fact more 
clearly than another, it is that the owners of 
corporate property must personally interest them- 
selves in the affairs of their employes, lest their 
personality be forgotten and their property lost. 

Ownership of property presupposes the duty of 
guardianship, including a paternal interest in the 
operative, and its preservation to the owner will 
ever depend upon the general and wise exercise 
of his duty in this regard. 

Continuing our examination of the cost of 
maintaining a railroad. This cost is much in- 
creased by the interference offered by traflBc. 
Thus, repairs of track are retarded by the passing 
of trains and the diverting influences that attend 
their movement. Necessary repairs to equip- 
ment and machinery are oftentimes delayed be- 
cause of the pressing need for their use in handling 
traflBc. Many other instances might be cited if 
necessary. 

Insurance of property is a fixed expense, ex- 
cept in so far as it covers current traflBc. Prac- 
tices in regard to insurance are not uniform. 
In some cases it is the policy to insure every- 
thing. Other companies restrict their insurance 
to particular instances of special importance. 



612 BUILDING AND BE PAIRING BAILWAT8. 

Others, again, do not insure at all. I do not 
know that the circumstances likely to attend a 
cessation of business would be such as to require 
that a company's policy in this respect, whatever 
it might be, should be changed. Risk from the 
movement of trains and the conduct of business 
generally would, it is apparent, be much less 
than under normal conditions, while damages 
arising from the acts of mobs would have to be 
made good by the government. No two com- 
panies view the question of insurance from the 
same standpoint, and no estimate can, therefore, 
be made as to the extent of a company's expend- 
itures in this connection. After considerable 
observation of the effect of insurance and non- 
insurance, I should not think a company justified 
in expending a large amount in this direction 
unless its surplus were abundant and well assured. 
The magnitude of its interests renders it quite 
proper for it to assume risks of this nature. The 
cost of insuring the property of a company may 
be reduced to the minimum, in the event of stop- 
page of business from a strike or otherwise. 
Whatever is paid in this direction constitutes a 
fixed charge. 

Considered from the standpoint of organization 
and proprietorship, the taxes of a property con- 
stitute a fixed expense without reference to the 
basis upon which they are predicated. In this 
last respect the widest differences exist. In some 
cases taxes are based on real and personal prop- 
erty. In others upon earnings. The amount and 



THINGS AFFECTING MAINTENANCE. 613 

value of outstanding capital is sometimes the 
factor. When the tax is based on property, the 
levy v^ould be the same if the road v^ere not 
operated, though it is possible a reduction might 
be made under such circumstances. Certainly it 
should be, as it is manifest that property of this 
kind v^hich is earning nothing is, constructively 
at least, worth nothing and ought not to be taxed 
except upon a nominal basis. Practically, however, 
only a small reduction would probably be made. 
When taxes are based on earnings, it is manifest 
that a cessation of business would mean cessation 
of taxes, unless the stoppage were so prolonged 
as to suggest some other basis. In any event, 
however, the extent of a company's obligations 
for taxes, whatever they may be, become, in the 
case of an idle property, a fixed charge. 

It is impossible to determine accurately what 
proportion of the cost of maintaining railway 
property arises from climatic causes. Two 
methods suggest themselves by which to estimate 
the amount. The first is by a survey of the 
property in which every feature shall be ascer- 
tained. This method is the best when practicable. 
But, unfortunately, it is not generally practicable. 
The second that suggest itself is the relation 
which cost of maintenance bears to the total cost 
of operating. It is only approximate and not 
reliable for our purpose. 

Different properties are affected by different 
climatic influences. Thus, the railways of the 
North and the South have dissimilar conditions to 



614 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

meet. Those of each section necessitate peculiar 
outlays. Thus, deterioration of wood in the South 
is much more rapid than in the North, but, on 
the other hand, Northern roads suffer greatly 
from frost and the abrupt changes peculiar to a 
cold country. The conditions most favorable to 
the preservation of material are a mild, dry 
climate, but it is probable the roads of the South 
have, on the whole, advantages over those of 
other localities in the cheapness with which they 
operate and maintain their properties. 

More than anything else, fixed expense of 
maintenance is dependent upon quality of mate- 
rial, the measure of intelligence evinced in locat- 
ing and constructing a line, and finally the skill 
exercised in protecting the property. The nature 
of the structure is important; stone is more 
durable than wood; brick more lasting than grout. 
But the duration of the structure is largely 
dependent upon the care with which it is con- 
structed and looked after. This rule applies to 
the roadbed and its ballast as fully as to build- 
ings and other structures. 

The cost of keeping rolling stock in repair is 
greatly increased by deterioration from natural 
causes. This deterioration is greater when the 
plant is actively employed than if carefully 
housed, as much of it would be if not in use. 
The facilities of railroads every day become more 
ample, but they do not as yet generally contemplate 
placing passenger and freight cars under cover 
when not in use. This adds greatly to the cost 



THINGS AFFECTING MAINTENANCE. 615 

of their maintenance. Referring to the cost of 
preserving equipment, an interesting writer on 
the subject says: "A locomotive taken into the 
shop and covered v^ith tallow would be ready for 
service with very slight repair to the stack and 
other parts. The atmosphere would have a 
greater effect upon freight cars, and it would be 
necessary to paint them at periods (probably of 
considerable length), even if not in use, as they 
would suffer from dry rot and other causes. 
With regard to passenger cars on the same 
basis, the percentage would not be so great as 
freight cars, as the material and finish are bet- 
ter, but they would require a coat of varnish, at 
long intervals, to preserve the outside paint." 

The wear and tear of equipment from traffic is, 
of course, proportionate to its use, but cost will 
ever depend largely upon the intelligence and 
promptness with which repairs are made. If 
locomotives are not properly painted, cleaned 
and housed; if passenger cars are not kept 
cleaned, painted and varnished; if freight cars 
are not kept painted and repaired as needed; if 
machinery is not carefully looked after, the dete- 
rioration will be rapid and marked. The tele- 
graphic plant of a company, including lines, 
furniture, tools, machinery, batteries, instru- 
ments and other appurtenances, suffers constant 
deterioration from natural causes, and although 
lines are much better constructed than formerly, 
the deterioration has only been lessened, not 
obviated. 



616 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS.*^ 

It is apparent from the foregoing that differ- 
ences exist, and ever will exist, as to the outlay 
of railroads, that arise from natural causes. 
Accurate data, therefore, in regard to a partic- 
ular road will not be conclusive in regard to 
others. It will, however, afford an approximate 
estimate in many cases, for however greatly rail- 
ways differ from each other in particular things, 
they are generally uniform. If, therefore, data 
were obtainable for several railroads, this aver- 
age would afford a glimpse, at least (but not 
more), of railways similarly situated. I have 
this data for a period of twenty years, for rail- 
ways thirty-five hundred miles long, located in 
a temperate climate, subject to such extremes of 
heat and cold as are to be found in the great lake 
region of the United States. Conditions here, as 
regards wages and cost of material, are those of 
American railways generally. The results are 
embodied in the appendix hereto.* They show the 
relation that particular items of maintenance bear 
to the total cost of maintenance. Also the pro- 
portion that cost of maintenance bears to other 
expenses. They also show cost arising from 
climatic causes, and the expense of maintaining 
a nucleus of organization. I have not attempted 
to give the aggregate cost in dollars and cents, 
but to show the relation which cost bears to the 
current cost of operating, so that the reader has 
only to ascertain what each operating expense 



' Appendices C and D. 



THINGS AFFECTING MAINTENANCE. 617 

amounts to upon a road to ascertain approx- 
imately what the fixed expense is. 

The maintenance of a railway involves, as I 
have pointed out, innumerable things. Some I 
have specified; others only hinted at. It in- 
volves, directly and indirectly, the books, blanks, 
forms and stationery of a company; its furni- 
ture, fixtures and appliances; a proper system of 
accounts; the telegraph; responsible methods of 
handling money; the purchase, inspection, care 
and use of material; the proper employment of 
labor; the government of the corporation; the 
handling of traffic; the issuance of tariffs and 
classifications; the movement of trains; above 
all, the maintenance of the track. I have said 
much about the latter. The theme is an impor- 
tant one. That of equipment and machinery is 
nearly, if not quite, as great. This subject, how- 
ever, I refer to in the book devoted to Equip- 
ment, and so shall not discuss it here further 
than to point out that cost is dependent here, as 
elsewhere, upon the care and foresight exercised. 
Paint, and its accessory, varnish, I may say in a 
word, are important agents in this connection. 
Material of this nature must be of the best qual- 
ity, though the difference in cost between good 
and bad material will constantly tempt the pur- 
chaser to buy the latter. In the preparation of 
paints, ingredients require to be carefully 
weighed and measured. The material must also 
be pure and finely ground. The colors used re- 
quire to be harmonious and permanent. Work 



618 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. 

of this nature cannot be hurried. Thus, varnish 
must be thoroughly dry and hard before being 
exposed to the weather, and in order to secure 
this ample covered space, well lighted, ventilated 
and heated, is required. If conditions necessitate 
it, artificial means of drying must be resorted to. 
In order to secure the best results, the varnish, 
after it is applied, should be well rubbed in, so as 
to close the pores. In England, where much at- 
tention has been given the subject, a coat of raw 
linseed oil, from which all the fatty material has 
been extracted, is applied to the varnish. In 
cleaning, care must be taken to avoid harmful or 
destructive methods, such as the use of very hot 
water or chemicals, otherwise the varnish on a 
car may be quickly ruined after the vehicle 
leaves the shop. In painting, questions of color 
are not, as would seem at first glance, entirely 
matters of taste. Advocates of light colors claim 
that the varnish holds better in such cases, that 
it is easier to clean, wears better, and does not 
absorb the heat as much as dark colored paint. 
On the other hand, dark colors show the dirt less 
and require less material. 

In concluding, I repeat what I have so fre- 
quently had occasion to call attention to, namely, 
that cost of maintaining railroads (and operating 
them as well) is dependent upon the nature, 
location and business of properties, the thorough- 
ness with which they are built and the effective- 
ness and foresight exercised in keeping them in 
order. 



THINGS AFFECTING MAINTENANCE. 619 

I have not attempted to elaborate tte subject 
unduly, but to point out its more salient features 
and the line of inquiry to be considered. I have 
sought also, indirectly, to make clear to those 
who impose obligations upon railroads the neces- 
sity of their discriminating; of tempering the 
w^ind to the shorn lamb; of remembering that 
while the enforcement of arbitrary enactments 
without reference to local conditions will simplify 
official labors, the result will be disastrous to the 
properties concerned. The business of a railroad, 
like every other business, is a matter of detail 
and must be so considered. It is just as proper 
to make hats of a uniform size for all men as to 
prescribe fixed conditions for railroads. As well 
might the expenses of the government be col- 
lected by a uniform charge per head on men, 
women and children, without reference to their 
ability to pay, as to seek to make one railroad 
the measure of other railroads. 



APPENDIXES. 



(621) 



APPENDIX B. 

RELATION THE VARIOUS ITEMS OF TRACK LABOR 
BEAR TO EACH OTHER. 

Labor, handling rails 3.68 per cent. 

Labor, handling ties 9.56 

Labor, ballasting 12.31 

Labor, ditching 4.78 " 

Labor, freshet repairs 92 " 

Labor, watching track 1.25 " 

Labor, clearing track of snow and ice 6.62 " 

Labor, clearing track of weeds and grass 7.35 " 

Labor, general repairs to track (including cut- 
ting rails) 53.53 

100.00 



RELATION THAT VARIOUS ITEMS OF TRACK EXPENSES 
BEAR TO TOTAL TRACK EXPENSES. 

Labor, handling rails 2.23 per cent. 

Labor, handling ties 5.79 

Labor, ballasting 7.35 " 

Labor, ditching 2.89 

Labor, freshet repairs 45 ** 

Labor, watching track 67 " 

Labor, clearing track of snow and ice 4.01 " 

Labor, clearing track of weeds and grass 4.45 " 

Labor, general repairs of track (including cut. 

ting of rails) 32.52 

Rails, ties, miscellaneous track material and 

tools 39.64 

100.00 



(628) 



APPENDIX C. 

RELATION VARIOUS CLASSES OF MAINTENANCE BEAR 
TO TOTAL COST OF MAINTENANCE. 

Maintenance of track 44 . 25 per cent. 

Maintenance of bridges and culverts 6 . 68 " 

Maintenance of buildings 6 . 98 " 

Maintenance of fences, gates and crossings. . . 2.46 " 

Maintenance of equipment 39 .63 

100.00 



RELATION OF THE COST OF MAINTAINING THE PROP- 
ERTY OF A ROAD TO ALL OTHER OPERATING EX- 
PENSES. 

Maintenance of property 38 . 62 per cent. 

Other operating expenses CI. 38 

100.00 



(624) 



APPENDIX D. 



PERCENTAGE OF THE TOTAL COST OF OPERATING DUE TO 
MAINTENANCE OF ORGANIZATION AND THE PREVENTION 
OF THE DESTRUCTION OF THE PROPERTY FROM NATURAL 

CAUSES. 



Name of Account. 



Kenewal of rails 

Kenewal of ties 

Eepairs of roadway and track 

Bepairs of bridges, culverts and 
cattle guards 

Repairs of buildings 

Eepairs of fences, road crossings 
and signs 

Repairs of locomotives 

Repairs of passenger cars 

Repairs of freight cars 

Telegraph expenses (mainte- 
nance) 

Agents 

Clerks 

Train force 

Salaries general officers and their 
chief assistants 

Law expenses 

Oil, waste and tallow 

Stationery and printing 

Contingencies (and miscella- 
neous) 

Insurance 

Fixed Charges Other Than 

Operating. 
Taxes 

Interest on funded debt 

Sinking fund requirements 

Leases, contracts and agreements. 



Percentage of the Total 
Operating Expense that 
Comes Under the Head op 
Fixed Charges. 



70 

57 

75 

70 



95 



8.5^ In the case of a 
g I railroad not in opera 



j^tlon the 
10 J would be. . . 



expense 



'5f 
9 



10 

50 ' 
25 
12.5 

50 
50 

1 

1 

1 
10 



100 



100 
100 
100 



In making these es- 
timates the wages of 
^the force retained are 
reduced fifty per cent. 



Except where taxes 
are based on earnings, 
or special reductions 
can be secured. 



36 Vol. 13 



(625) 



APPENDIX E. 



GAUGES OF RAILROADS THAT ARE OR HAVE BEEN IN USE 
IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. 



Australia 

New South Wales. 

Victoria 

South Australia.., 

Queensland 

Austria 

Argentine Republic. . 
Belgium 



Brazil. 



British India.. 

Canada 

Cape Colonies. 

Ceylon 

Chili 

Denmark 

Egypt 

France 



Great Britain . 



Holland 

Hungary 

Ireland 

Italy 

Japan 

Mexico 

New Zealand . . . 
North Germany . 

Norway 

Nova Scotia 

Panama 

Peru 

Portugal 

Russia 

Spain 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

Tasmania 



Turkey 

United States 

Uruguay Republic. 



Gauge. 



Ft. In. 



4 

5 

5 

3 

4 
IMe 

4 
1 Me 

4 

5 

1 Me 
*4 

8 

5 

5 

4 

3 

4 

t4 
*5 
*6 

4 

4 

5 

4 

3 
*3 

5 

4 

3 

4 
*5 

4 

5 

5 

5 

4 

4 

3 

4 
*2 
t3 

4 
16 

4 



8^2 

3 
3 
6 

S% 
tre 

tre 

3 

6 
tre 

6 
6 
6 

8% 

6 

8/2 

8K2 



2 

81/2 

8^2 

3 

S% 

6 



3 

8% 

6 

81/2 



8X 

6 



6 

8^2 

8!/2 
6 

8^2 





10 



8^2 



Gauge. 



Ft. In. 



*4 



*5 

t4 
*5 



8^ 



8/2 


2 



8/a 
8/2 



9 

8^2 






Gauge. 



Ft. In. 



*3 

*§5 



*4 
5 
*3 



6 

1/2 



Gauge. 



Ft. In. 



*3 



8^ 

3 

6 



* Gauges in use at present time, January, 1897, 

t Standard Narrow. 

i Standard Broad. 

§ Standard of Ireland. 

I Mount Washington. 

if Sterling Mountain. 



APPENDIX F. 



QUANTITY OF MATERIAL REQUIRED TO LAY ONE MILE OF 
RAILROAD TRACK ON THE BASIS NAMED. 



Description. 


Weight 

PER 

Yard. 


Tons. 


Number. 


SIZE. 




65 lbs. 


102i\,*^ 


352 


30 feet in length. 




72 " 


113iWo 


352 


30 " " 


Rails « 


80 " 


125iVtj% 


352 


30 " " 




85 *' 


133iWo 


352 


30 " *' 


s 


90 •• 


141iU% 


352 


30 '' '' •» 


Ties 






3,017 


^6 inches thick, by 8 inches 

wide, by 8 feet long, laid 

< at a distance of 21 inches 




from center to center of 
each tie. 


Spikes 






12,068 


r5Yz inches long and j% inch 
) thick , measured under 




l^head. 


Baseplates.... 






352 




Angle Bars . . . . 




. 


704 




Bolts.., 






1.408 




Nut Locks 






1,408 




Tie Plates 






6,034 


'Number required provid- 
ed a plate is put on each 
end of every tie. They 
<; are seldom used continu- 
ously, however, but, as a 
rule, only on bridges, tres- 
^tles and curves. 



Ballast to the depth of 12 inches under the ties, with a surface of 10 feet, 
requires 3,060 cubic yards for one mile of track 



(627) 



APPENDIX G. 

Table showing increase in weight of locomotives from 1880 
to 1900, those given being the largest and heaviest of their 
respective dates. 

1880. 



Name of R. R. 

using the 
Locomotive. 


Wt. on 

drivers 

lbs. 


Total 
Wt. 
lbs. 


Driving 
Wheel 
Base. 


Total 

Wheel 

base. 


Class 

of 

Locomotive. 


Boston& Albany. 


52,000 
93,800 
64,250 


77,000 
108,750 
96,200 






8 wheel type. 
Consolidation. 
Fast Passenger. 


Fitchburg.... 
Phil. & Reading* 


14 ft. 9 in. 
6 - 6 " 


22 ft. 8^ in. 
21 - 1 *' 



1900. 



Illinois Central.. 
Illinois Central.. 

Union 

Lake Shore 

Grand Trunk. .. 
N. Y. Central... 
Fitchburg 



193,200 


232,200 


15 ft. 9 in. 


194,000 


214,000 


16 " 3 " 


208,000 


230,000 


15 " 7 " 


133,000 


171,600 


16 '^ 6 " 


125,000 


166,000 


15 " 8 " 


126,000 


164,000 


14 '- 8 " 


130,000 


164,000 


15 '* 9 " 



26 ft 


. 6 in. 


24 ♦* 


5 " 


24 '' 


" 


27 " 


4 " 


26 " 


U " 


26 " 


'• 


26 '' 


6 ♦* 



12 wheel freight. 
Consolidation. 
Consolidation. 
10 wheel passenger. 
10 wheel passenger. 
10 wheel passenger. 
12 wheel or masto- 
don type. 



♦Engines 411 and 506. 



(628) 



APPENDIX H. 

DETAILED RULES GOVERNING THE LOCATION OF RAIL- 
WAYS.^ 

ORGANIZATION. 

The Construction Department will have charge of all sur- 
veys and construction in connection with the building of new 
railways or extensions of existing lines. 

The Engineering Department will have charge of all surveys 
and engineering connected with the work of improving lines 
already built. 

The organization of the Construction Department will be as 
follows: (1) Chief Engineer, reporting to the President. (2) 
Division Engineers, with jurisdiction as assigned by the Chief 
Engineer. (3) Assistant Engineers in charge of the construc- 
tion of a line, or other work of importance, reporting to Divi- 
sion Engineers. (4) Locating Engineers, reporting to Division 
Engineers or to Assistant Engineers as directed. (5) Resident 
Engineers, in charge of the construction of a section of new 
road, or a subdivision of some work, reporting to Assistant 
Engineers. The organization of the Engineering Department 
will be as follows: (1) Chief Engineer reporting to the Gen- 
eral Manager. (2) Division Engineers, having charge of the 
engineering workiupon lines in operation, reporting to the 
Chief Engineer, and also acting as Division Engineers of the 
Construction Department upon special assignment by the 
Chief Engineer to such work. (3) Assistant Engineers, in 
charge of special work, reporting to Division Engineers. 

The duties of the Engineering Department will be as fol- 
lows : 

1. To secure and maintain records of the physical charac- 
teristics of the railway, including roadbed, track, ballast, 



*These rules are in force on the Northern Pacific Railway. 

(629) 



630 APPENDIX H, 

bridges, culverts and other structures. The records should 
show number or quantity, location, type, dimensions, condi- 
tion, cost and date of construction, in all necessary details. 

2. To make general inspection of all such structures annu- 
ally, and such other examinations in special cases as may be 
necessary at all times; to furnish reports on their condition, 
and estimates and recommendations covering repairs, renew- 
als and replacements in the manner and on the forms pre- 
scribed. 

3. To prepare and maintain correct station and right of 
way plats, standard track and other profiles, standard maps 
and plans, and all general engineering records. 

4. To supervise and direct all work of special character, as 
assigned by General Manager and Chief Engineer. 

5. To inspect and report condition of all ordinary and spe- 
cial work to insure compliance with standard plans and speci- 
fications. 

6. To prepare plans, specifications and estimates for all 
duly authorized work, when necessary, to prepare forms of 
proposal and contracts for such work, and to award contracts 
when approved by the General Manager. 

7. To furnish all necessary stakes, centers, elevations, 
cross sections and measurements required for the execution 
of routine or special work, and otherwise to aid and supple- 
ment the Division forces to the best advantage of the railway 
company. 

Engineers will have no authority over roadmasters, bridge 
foreman or any regular force of the several Division Superin- 
tendents, except as it may be conferred upon them in special 
cases by the General Manager, General Superintendent, or 
Superintendent, but they must report to the proper official any 
neglect or failure to execute work in accordance with the duly 
authorized plans, specifications or instructions governing such 
work. 

None other than routine work will be undertaken without 
formal and sufficient authority, confirmed by approved Im- 
provement forms (1363), or. by special direction of the General 
Manager, General Superintendent or Assistant General Super- 
intendent transmitted through the Chief Engineer or the 
Division Engineers. 



APPENDIX H. 631 

No work affecting safety or regularity of trains must be 
undertaken without previously notifying the Superintendent of 
the Division upon which the work is to be performed, and 
the subsequent execution of the work must conform to the 
orders, rules and regulations established by the Superinten- 
dent to insure safety. 

All necessary track or bridge work in connection with 
such work will be performed by the division force, under the 
instructions of the Superintendent or his roadmasters or 
bridge foremen. 

Salaries and wages of special forces employed under the 
direction of an engineer, unless specially excepted, will be 
carried on the Superintendents' rolls, the engineer making 
time returns in the manner prescribed by the standard rules 
in force on the Division. 

Before the beginning of each season's work Assistant Engi- 
neers will be furnished with a list of the various improve- 
ments authorized. The limits within which track laying and 
ballasting are to be prosecuted should be ascertained in ad- 
vance and levels run over such sections and profiles sent to 
the Division Engineer, plotted to a double vertical and single 
horizontal scale. The Division Engineer will locate the proper 
ballast grade line and Assistant Engineers will compute quan- 
tities in cubic yards of material required for bank widening, 
raising sags and ballast. 

At the close of each season's work Assistant Engineers 
will furnish a detailed report of the various improvements 
completed, giving full notes and sketches wherever neces- 
sary. 

LOCATION. (THEORY.) 

"Engineering is the art of making a dollar earn the most 
interest." 

A railway is a commercial enterprise and is constructed 
solely for profit. 

The factors affecting profits are: 1. Gross earnings. 2. 
Operating expenses. 3. Fixed charges. The effect on such 
factors, of differences of route, location, details and construc- 
tion cost must be determined before the final route of least 
cost and greatest value can be fixed. 



632 APPENDIX H. 

The combined sum of operating expenses and interest 
charges is least when interest charges on additional expendi- 
tures are no longer saved in reduced cost of operating ex- 
penses, and when additional operating expenses are no longer 
saved, in reduced interest charges. Accordingly, the eco- 
nomic value of each factor affecting the cost of operating must 
be ascertained and carefully compared with its corresponding 
effect on construction cost, in order to secure the most eco- 
nomical ratio between operating expenses and construction 
cost. 

The principal factors affecting cost of operation, with which 
the Engineer has to deal, are: Volume of traffic, gradients, 
distance, rise and fall, curvature and maintenance of railway, 
for which economic values are elsewhere given under appro- 
priate heads. 

The sums which may be profitably expended for improving 
the character of the railway location and construction vary 
most directly with the number of trains to be operated over 
the new railway, for which reason the ''train mile" is usually 
adopted as the operating unit. The commercial effectiveness 
of ''operation'' is reflected In the average cost of transporta- 
tion per net ton mile, which may be regarded as the commer- 
cial unit. 

The least cost of transportation is secured when the lowest 
train mile cost is combined with the largest net tonnage per 
train. And the earning power of the invested capital is 
greatest when least cost and greatest net tonnage per train 
are combined with the lowest economic capital expenditure. 

Under these conditions only does "a dollar earn the most 
interest." 

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. 

The rules governing location are intended for use in the 
field, and it is expected that they will be closely followed. 
The ability of the engineer will be determined by this 
standard. 

Before any new road is located, the Chief Engineer will 
indicate the character and purpose of the line, and will give 
the number of trains for which the line is to be located. 
After the completion of the preliminary surveys he will also 



APPENDIX H, 633 

determine the rates and proper adjustments of the ruling 
grades and the maximum degree of curvature to be adopted. 
All locations must be approved by the Chief Engineer before 
construction is begun. 

Each railway location should be specially considered with 
reference to its effect upon receipts, operating expenses, and 
fixed charges, the character and direction of the expected 
traflac and the class and number of trains to be operated over 
it. The selection of route, adjustment of location details and 
character of construction will be determined in accordance 
with the ascertained conditions of lowest operating expense 
and least construction cost for each case. 

Locating engineers will furnish weekly reports, stating 
progress and giving all other items of general interest pertain- 
ing to their work, especially information concerning present or 
prospective sources of traflSc, its locality, character and 
amount. 

Strict compliance with the instructions is expected concern- 
ing the preparation of maps, profiles, records and estimates. 

Graphic tables for computing quantities on transverse slopes 
for use in preliminary estimates will be furnished by the rail- 
way company. 

So far as practicable, all maps, profiles, estimates and gen- 
eral records will be completed while the surveys are in prog- 
ress, avoiding all unnecessary accumulations at the close of 
the work. 

Competent engineers will avoid much unnecessary loss of 
time and money by making preliminary reconnoissances in 
person, using pocket compass, hand level and "aneroid" when 
necessary. When there are several alternate routes careful 
examination will usually prove it unnecessary to make instru- 
mental surveys over them all. 

Rapid exploration lines, especially when in timber, should 
be run with compass bearings; in many cases the method 
of stadia readings will also expedite progress. The time- 
honored custom of conducting explorations from behind the 
transit should be changed for a more intelligent method. 

The reconnoissance should be of an area rather than of a 
consecutive line, all lines or combinations of lines connectin'^ 
controlling points being studied as a whole. It ehould be the 



634 APPENDIX H. 

effort of the engineer to first ascertain the position, character 
and limiting effect of controlling points, natural or otherwise; 
afterwards connecting such points most advantageously, and 
finally filling in intermediate details to the best advantage. 

No local conditions of rocky slopes, swamps, brush, timber, 
etc., should be allowed to unduly influence the Engineer as 
to their real effect upon the total estimate. He should also 
remember that alternate lines will be compared upon the 
basis of completed cost, and not on the cost to subgrade only, 
and finally that it is not the object of location to secure a line 
of uniform low cost, but of least total cost. It is a common 
error to reject routes with short sections of heavy construc- 
tion cost in favor of more uniform although inferior routes of 
greater total cost. 

The route of best grades and alignment should always 
be first projected, working back to the final and most econom- 
ical route. Working in the reverse order usually results in in- 
ferior location. 

The possibility of obtaining a very good line should not 
preclude the search for a better one; the greatest and most 
costly location errors occur most frequently in prairie regions. 

Valley locations are usually projected from "point to point" 
on the line of shortest distance, when the stream is unimpor- 
tant, otherwise the convex angles of the stream on one side 
and the slopes on the other form controlling points, if not 
modified by the additional latitude of choice afforded by the 
two sides of the stream, or any combination of same. 

Bench, plateau or prairie locations are usually projected on 
routes of most uniform grade and direction between controlling 
points. Commercial centers, stream crossings and controlling 
elevations form the principal controlling points. 

Mountain locations are subject to greater restrictions, and 
are usually fixed with reference to the position and height of 
the summit, the distribution and amount of rise and fall to be 
overcome and the relation between the adopted gradients and 
the corresponding length and cost of line. 

The summit is, of course, the principal controlling point; 
other points are generally accidental or artificial, as deter- 
mined by local topographical conditions and the rate of grade 
adopted for the descent. Such lines are usually located de- 



APPENDIX H. 635 

scending from the summit along a uniform grade contour to 
an intersection with the ''bottom" line of lower grades. 

All locations should be made with regard to future perma- 
nent construction and every effort used to reduce the amount 
of temporary construction which may be required to the least 
limits. Many opportunities for stream diversion are neglected, 
even in cases where the cost of the bridging otherwise re- 
quired is many times in excess. 

When construction funds are limited, adopt lower standards 
of construction, lay temporary gradients and use short sec- 
tions of temporary line around or over tunnels and sections of 
heavy work, if necessary to avoid sacrificing future benefits 
arising from a properly located route. Such lines may be 
economically revised at some future time, while the revision 
of a generally faulty 'location" might involve such large ex- 
penditure as to make a remedy forever impracticable. 

Exercise extreme care in fixing the locations for stations, 
water tanks, coaling plants and crossings, and in adjusting 
grades for same, to reduce the cost and disadvantages of train 
stops to the minimum. 

Train stops on or near the foot of grades should always be 
avoided if possible, and when not avoidable for any reason, 
the rate of grade should be compensated to facilitate the start- 
ing of trains. 

A proper reconnoissance report conveys a graphic impres- 
sion of the features of the region and route traversed, and con- 
tains the fundamental elements affecting operation and con- 
struction cost. The engineer should separate the routes re- 
ported upon into natural divisions of similar characteristics, 
giving distances, grades and controlling points of each. He 
should describe, classify and approximately estimate the ma- 
terial to be moved and other work to be performed, giving 
averages per mile and totals for each section, and furnish an 
approximate estimate of the cost per mile and total cost of the 
completed railway. Small scale maps and profiles showing 
general features, elevations and distribution of ruling grades 
should accompany such reports, whenever necessary. 

The fundamental principle of good location is common sense. 
VOLUME OF TRAFFIC. 

Fixed charges are but slightly, or not at all, affected by 
variations in volume of traffic. ''General" operating expenses 



636 APPENDIX E. 

are affected only by considerable changes of volume, while the 
more direct expenses of operation vary more or less closely 
with the tonnage or passengers transported. 

The effect on cost of operation of the number of trains 
operated is much more direct, than of the actual number 
of passengers or tons transported, hence the effect on the 
cost per train-mile is used as the basis for all economic 
comparisons, and the actual cost per train-mile should be as- 
certained in all cases, when possible. 

Under practical conditions, the first trains operated cost 
more, and additional trains cost less than the average cost 
of all. 

The average cost per train-mile for the United States is 
probably not far from $1, and this amount may be used for 
convenience, when more exact data are lacking. 

When the number of trains is affected without affecting the 
total cars or tonnage, the cost per train-mile added or saved, 
may be assumed at 60 cents, in default of more exact data. 

The cost of assistant engine service, extra cost of heavier 
engines and of all other items affecting the cost per train- 
mile, under special conditions, must be added or subtracted 
from the train-mile cost first assumed (see Ruling Grades). 

If better estimates of cost are nol available, estimate assist- 
ant engines at $7,500 per annum (per day of 12 hours) and 
heavier engines in the ratio of 15 per cent, increase of cost 
per train-mile for doubling weights on driving wheels. The 
total cost of assistant engine service should be divided by the 
number of trains served. 

Passenger trains are but little affected in number or length 
by some classes of rise and fall and gradients and should be 
excluded in all such cases. 

For the purpose of comparison capitalize the annual cost of 
train expenses at 6 per cent. 

DISTANCE. 

Minor changes not aggregating over two miles, in an engine 
stage, do not usually affect train wages, nor track force; train 
expenses and renewals are slightly affected. 

The capitalized value of this class of distance per daily 
train per annum may be considered as 25 cents per foot, to 
which should be added its construction cost, at say $3 per 
foot, when the actual cost is not known. 



APPENDIX H, 637 

Greater changes, but not adding to the number of engine 
districts usually increase both train wages and track force. 
The assumed value of this class per daily train per annum 
is 60 cents per foot ($3,168 per mile). The actual construc- 
tion cost should be added to the total thus obtained. 

Considerable changes, adding to the number of engine dis- 
tricts and the number of trains operated, should be valued in 
accordance with the ascertained cost of similar service under 
similar conditions, but otherwise may be valued on the basis 
of $1 per train-mile, equivalent to $6,083 capitalized value per 
mile of distance per daily train per annum, adding all con- 
struction cost of railway and extra equipment to the amount 
obtained by multiplying this sum by the actual number of 
daily trains (each way). 

The effect of distance on receipts is sometimes most seri- 
ous, and a still further sum must be added in such cases, when 
the effect is sufficiently tangible. 

CURVATURE. 

The cost of operating curvature varies with the angular 
degrees of curvature operated, and is but little affected by the 
length of curve radius. 

The operating value of curvature per degree is assumed at 
$7 per daily train per annum, but to this should be added the 
commercial value of lost time, if any, and also all extra con- 
struction cost of rail-braces, tie-plates, spikes and guard rails. 

Curves exceeding 14 degrees per station should not be used 
without due necessity and usually require both guard and 
"hold-up" rails for safety. 

A maximum curve, unlike a maximum grade, is not limiting, 
and does not justify the use of similar curvature elsewhere 
on the same engine district. 

All curves of 3 degrees and over must be provided with ter- 
minal transition curves, changing 1 degree with each chord of 
50 feet. On mountain lines this rate of transition may be 
doubled if necessary. 

Curves less than 300 feet in length will not be used. 

The minimum tangents between reversing curves must not 
be less than the chord length of the transition curves; the 
minimum tangents between curves in the same direction must 
not be less than 500 feet 



638 APPENDIX. H. 

Curvature on maximum gradients must be compensated at. a 
rate not less than .04 feet per degree. 
Use standard rules for super-elevation of outer rail. 

RISE AND FALL. 

The effect on operation of minor gradients and small undula- 
tions, within ^'velocity limits" is very small, and its capital- 
ized value is assumed at $2 per foot per daily train per annum 
(one way). Limiting curvature and train stops on grades of 
this kind will greatly increase the cost of operation, and should 
be avoided in any event. 

The value of rise and fall on grades of considerable rise 
exceeding velocity limits, but not requiring use of brakes and 
sand, is $7 per foot per daily train. 

The value of rise and fall on grades requiring the use of 
brakes and sand is $22 per foot per daily train, and $30 per foot 
if on ruling gradients. 

The limiting effect on train weights, of long sections of 
more or less continuous rise, may considerably exceed that 
due to maximum gradients. This effect occurs oftenest on 
valley lines with low ruling gradients. 

Train weights may be limited either by ruling gradients 
which tax adhesion, or by time requirements, which tax the 
engine boiler. 

The product of speed and train resistance is horse-power 
and with fixed conditions of speed and engine horse-power, 
the train resistance is also fixed. Hence, the train weights 
over the division may be fixed by the average scheduled speed, 
and the engine horse-power at limits far below those fixed 
by ruling gradients. Under such conditions the average and 
not the maximum resistance controls the train weights. 

Compute engine horse-power by the simple formula. 

RxS 



375 

In which P is horse-power; R, resistance of total train In 
pounds; S, speed in miles per hour; and 375 a constant factor. 
(See Fig. 1 for horse-power of typical engines in use on the 
N. P. Ry, in 1898). 



APPENDIX H. 



639 







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640 



APPENDIX H. 



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APPENDIX H. 641 

Vertical curves are required on summits at all grade inter- 
sections not less than 50 feet in length for each charge of 
one-tenth in rate of grade. 

In "sags" the rate of change should not exceed 0.05 feet 
per station. In theory, the rate of change should be such as 
to maintain equality between the rolling resistance and the 
"acceleration of gravity" of each car throughout the varying 
rates of speed. 

RULING GRADES. 

Grades which limit the maximum weights and length of 
trains, are termed "Ruling Grades." Maximum grades, which 
may be operated by heavier engines, or by assistant engines, 
are not necessarily ruling grades. 

The economic value of changes in rates of grades is deter- 
mined by the relative total cost and number of trains, required 
on each rate of grade to transport the same number of cars 
and tons. The practical rule is as follows : Multiply the daily 
number of trains saved or added by the ascertained cost per 
train-mile, by the length of the division in miles, and by the 
number of days in the year, the result will be the annual 
saving or added cost, resulting from such change in rate. To 
obtain the capitalized value, divide this result by the proper 
interest rate. 

When actual values are not known, assume the rate of 60 
cents per train-mile (see Volume of Traffic), which capitalized 
at 6 per cent, is $3,650 (one way only). 

The cost of operating heavier engines, assistant engines 
and all other items of expense added or saved, should be 
computed in addition and capitalized, if necessary (see Vol- 
ume of Traffic). 

Every effort must be made to maintain the lowest practicable 
and economical rate of grade over the entire engine district. 

When sections of high grade are unavoidable, it is fre- 
quently practicable to concentrate such "rise and fall" into 
short sections, which may be economically operated by use of 
assistant engines. 

The ruling grade of each engine district should be adjusted 
with reference to those of the adjoining districts, or to con- 
ditions of local traffic, in such a manner as to avoid unneces- 
sary "breaking and making up" of trains. When not practica- 
ble to secure this by grade adjustment alone a combined ad- 
37 Vol. 13 



642 



APPENDIX H. 



justment of grades and engine, weights will effect the same 
end. 

The ratio of rates of ruling grades to each other at points 
of intersection should preferably be in proportion to the 
tractive powers of the available types of engines. 

On sections of great rise and fall (mountain crossings, etc.) 
it should be the aim of the engineer to produce the maximum 
and minimum ruling grades to an intersection, if possible, and 
in any event to reduce the sections of different rates to the 
least number. 

Ruling grades may be of different rates, but equal limiting 
effect, when adjusted for unbalanced volume of traffic. 

Train stops on maximum grades must be compensated as 
fully as practicable, and not less than 3.5 feet in any case. 
Compensation is not only provided for the increase in starting 
friction over rolling friction, but in addition to permit trains 
to acquire speed more rapidly. Train stops near the foot of 
a long grade are most limiting in this respect. 
VIRTUAL GRADES. 

The motion of a train represents stored energy, derived 
from the engine or gravitation, and, under appropriate condi- 
tions, the power of the engine may be in part absorbed in 
imparting speed to the train, or augmented by the surrendered 
momentum of the train. 

When rolling and grade resistances exceed the applied force, 
motion is retarded and energy released in definite proportions, 
and conversely, when applied force is in excess, motion is 
accelerated and energy imparted in like proportions. 

The moving energy of the train at different speeds is given 
in Fig. 2 in terms of "Velocity Head," which is the vertical 
height, through which the train would be lifted, at each degree 
of speed by its momentum alone. 




Fig. 2. 

DIAGRAM SHOWING LENGTHS OP VELOCITY GRADES. 



APPENDIX E. 



643 



Formula for Determining the Average Virtual Grade. 

1 r T 



(^-) 



a.) 



20 t W 
Sy =» average virtual grade expressed in per cent. 

T = mean cylinder tractive power in lbs. for given initial and terminal 

speed. 
-W = weight of train in tons of 2,000 lbs. ; including engine and tender. 
R = mean train resistance in lbs. per ton of train. 

Note— The maximum virtual grade for a given train-load (W) is found by 
inserting in above formula the train resistance (R) and the cylinder tractive 
power (T) for minimum speed (10 miles per hour). 

Example: In above diagram is shown the length of velocity grades for 
engine Class D 3 Mogul, pulling a train weighing 1,250 tons (including engine 
and tender) for an initial speed of 30 miles and a terminal speed of 10 miles 
per hour. 

The difference in velocity heads (A M) taken from Table of Velocity Heads 
= 31.95 — 3.55 = 28.4 feet. 

The average virtual grade (Sy) is calculated from formula: 
1 



20 



r T 1 1 r 11,743 1 

R I 7.3 =0.1047 per cent 

L W J 20 L 1,250 J 



T => 11,743, taken from table of mean cylinder tractive power. 
K = 7.3, taken from table of mean train resistance. 

The length of velocity grades from A to a, b, c, d, e, etc., is found by con- 
struction, as shown in the above diagram, or may be found by calculation 
from the formula 

d 
1 = , in which 1 = length in stations of 100 f t. ; d = difference in ve- 

S — Sy 

locity heads for the given initial and terminal speed; S= 
cent., and S^ = virtual grade, as found from formula (1). 
tual grade of the above example is 

1 f 17,850 1 

= I — 4.7 I = 0.479 per cent. 

20 L 1,250 J 



actual grade in per 
The maximum vir- 



Table of Mean Train Resistance in 
Pounds per Ton for Loaded Cars. 



Initial. 



-Speed 



45 
40 



35 
30 



20 
15 



iO 



Terminal. 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 



R. 

10.6 
9.4 
8.3 
7.3 
6.5 
5.8 
5.2 



4.7 



Table of Velocity Heads. 

(Velocity head = 0.0355 v2.) v 
speed in miles per hour. 



Speed 


Velocity 


Speed 


Velocity 


in miles 


head 


in miles 


head 


pr hr. 


Inft. 


pr hr. 


inft. 


10 


3.55 


28 


27.83 


11 


4.30 


29 


29.86 


12 


5.11 


30 


31.95 


13 


6.00 


31 


34.12 


14 


6.96 


32 


36.35 


15 


7.99 


33 


38.66 


16 


9.09 


34 


41.04 


17 


10.26 


35 


43.49 


18 


11.50 


36 


46.01 


19 


12.82 


37 


48.60 


20 


14.20 


38 


51.26 


21 


15.67 


39 


54.00 


22 


17.19 


40 


56.80 


23 


18.79 


41 


59.68 


24 


20.46 


42 


62.62 


25 


22.20 


43 


65.64 


26 


24.00 


44 


68.73 


27 


25.88 


45 


71.89 



644 



APPENDIX i/. 



The engine tractive power is least at high speed and short 
"cut off," and greatest at low speed and "full stroke/' as 
shown in Fig. 1. 

The mean tractive power of these engines from different 
rates of speed to ton miles per hour is given by the table 
following Fig. 1, or may be deduced from the diagram. 

The maximum available power for overcoming rolling and 
irade resistance is represented by the product of the train 
v^eight and its velocity head, added to the product of the mean 
engine tractive power, and the time or distance over which 
the power is exerted, illustrated, in short, in the effect 
produced by "taking a run at the hill." 




I 



Fig. 3. 

DIAGRAM OF TRAIN RESISTANCE IN POUNDS PER TON. 
(From A. M. Wellington's Railway Location.) 



APPENDIX H. 645 

Rolling resistance for trains at all speeds is given by Fig. 3, 
from which mean resistances between different rates of speed 
may also be readily computed. 

The simplest rule for computing grade resistance is as fol- 
lows: Resistance (in lbs. per ton) i= rate of grade (in feet) 
X 20. 

A gradient of equivalent resistance to the force exerted by 
the engine is the ''virtual grade," or real resistance taxing 
the engine cylinders. The virtual grade line may be plotted 
with the assistance of Figs. 1, 2 and 3, or computed in accord- 
ance with the general principles before given. 

"Momentum" or velocity grades may be used with due 
caution to avoid increasing rate of ruling grades, or to avoid 
large construction expenditures otherwise necessary. In all 
such cases train stops, grade crossing and limiting or dan- 
gerous curvature must be avoided. 

Velocity grades requiring freight train speeds in excess 
of 30 miles per hour must not be used, nor should such grades 
be laid out for speeds in excess of that obtainable under or- 
dinary working conditions. 

MAINTENANCE AS AFFECTED BY LOCATION. 

The cost and difficulty of maintaining track and roadbed 
may be greatly affected by the general characteristics and 
local details of the selected route, and all such conditions 
should receive careful consideration during the location of the 
route. 

The greatest differences may exist, even between the two 
sides of the same valley, as one side may be subject to con- 
tingencies of drifting snow, slides, cloudbursts, stream en- 
croachments or "washouts," from which the other side is 
wholly free. Conditions of greater shade, due to forest or 
bluffs, may cause longer duration of snow, frost and moisture, 
or local peculiarities of soil, and the character and number 
of lateral streams to be crossed may all contribute towards 
the increased cost of maintenance. 

Additions to cost of maintenance arising from faulty details 
of "construction," may not be properly considered in connec- 
tion with the subject of "Location," unless resulting directly 



646 APPENDIX H. 

or indirectly from the character of the location, such as un- 
necessary increase in number and length of bridges, grade 
crossings in lieu of possible under or overcrossings, faulty 
arrangements of grades, affecting yard and station expenses, 
and other items of like character. 

All additions to operating expenses, arising from such causes 
should be included in equations of alternate routes, capital- 
izing same if necessary, at the ruling rate of interest. 



Note:— The table of Velocity Heads and the economic values given for 
"Distance," "Curvature" and "Rise and Fall" are derived from Welling- 
ton's *' Economic Theory of Location," the values have been capitaliEc* 
at 6 per cent. 






APPENDIX I. 

DETAILED RULES GOVERNING SURVEYS AND CON- 
STRUCTION OF RAILWAYS AND LISTS OF SUP- 
PLIES REQUIRED IN THE FIELD.* 

SURVEYS AND CONSTRUCTION SURVEYS. 

The railway company will furnish instruments, transporta- 
tion, camp equipage and subsistence while parties are em- 
ployed in the field. Each individual will provide himself 
with all personal articles, such as drawing instruments, cloth- 
ing, blankets, etc. 

All survey lines diverging from any constructed line must 
be connected with it by measurement, so that the initial point 
can be located upon the map of such constructed line. 

Stations will be uniformly 100 feet long each, and num- 
bered consecutively. It is not necessary to set stakes at each 
station in all cases on preliminary lines; this may be left to 
the discretion of the chief of the party. Mark stakes on 
alternate lines with distinguishing letter A, B, C, etc. Mark 
stakes on located lines *'L." Mark point of curvature "P. C." 
or "P. S.," point of tangency "P. T." on the stakes of the be- 
ginning and end of all curves. Mark stakes at the "P. C." or 
"P. S.'* with the degree and direction of the curve. 

Ties must be secured to all township and subdivision lines 
whenever crossed. Give station number of intersection, angle 
of intersection, distance along the line to the nearest corner 
or quarter corner. Whenever possible, make the intersection 
by running through between the two corners. 

When line is located through villages or towns, take neces- 
sary measurements, tieing the center line to the plats, and 
secure tracings of the town plats as contained in the county 



♦These rules are in force on the Northern Pacific Railway. 

(647) 



G48 . APPENDIX I. 

registrar's office, with all dates and certificates contained in 
original, and send these copies to the office of the Chief 
Engineer. 

Tie in all property and land lines and locate all buildings 
that are near the line. 

Check all angles by needle reading, or by doubling the angle 
or both. Check all measurements by chain or tape. Check 
chains frequently by steel tape or level rod. 

Keep all instruments in proper condition and good adjust- 
ment. 

Always establish a substantial and permanent bench at the 
initial point of all surveys, and at short intervals along the 
line. Use the sea level datum, and if one has to be assumed, 
ascertain its relation with the standard datum at the first 
opportunity, and correct all elevations accordingly. 

All level notes must be checked at the end of each day's 
work by adding the backsights and the foresights, and ascer- 
taining the difference. 

MAPS, PROFILES AND RECORDS. 

Maps of located lines, made in the field, will be usually 
drawn to a scale of one inch to 800 feet; in broken and diffi- 
cult localities, one inch to 400 feet. General maps to be sent 
to the office of the Chief Engineer may be drawn to a scale 
of one inch to 4,000 feet, etc. The maps will be made in con- 
formity with the standard specimen sheets furnished from the 
office of Chief Engineer. 

Maps, plans and profiles are to be drawn with the top of 
the paper to northward or westward, and the letters and fig- 
ures are to be right side up toward the top or toward the left 
hand side of the paper, and must otherwise conform with the 
specimen profiles. 

Maps and profiles should give names of all rivers and 
streams, names of owners or occupants of houses, ranches or 
farms passed by the line, etc. Put on all the information nec- 
essary to enable another person to fully identify any locality. 
Be certain to note on profile all extreme high or extreme 
low watermarks, wherever found, even if only approximate. 
The meridian should be drawn on all maps, both true and 
magnetic, when both are known. 



APPENDIX /. 649 

On each drawing of any kind put name of engineer, initial 
of draftsman, date, place, etc. On both ends of the outside 
of the paper, give the title in full of the map, plan, sketch or 
profile. 

Tracings of maps and profiles of all lines run must be sent 
to the office of the Chief Engineer, distinctly marked with the 
name of the line, streams, and all other information necessary 
to identify the locality. 

Tracings of located lines showing government and property 
lines, streams and date of commencing and completing sur- 
vey, must be made and sent promptly to the office of the 
Chief Engineer, as soon as each section of twenty miles has 
been finally located, for the purpose of filing map of definite 
location m the land office. 

All changes of line made after the map of definite location 
has been filed in the general land office must be approved by 
the engineer in charge before being adopted, and as soon as 
made, reported to the Chief Engineer with a tracing of new 
and old line, and tracing profile of the part altered. 

Topography on general maps should be given for a distance 
of 1,500 feet on each side of the center line, and further when 
necessary to show important features. In order to facilitate 
plotting contour topography, the notes should give distances 
of contours from the center line. 

All courses of line must be given in reference to the true 
meridian, and for that purpose an observation must be taken 
upon starting the survey and the true course recorded in the 
field books, as the work progresses. An additional observation 
should be taken for the correction of meridianal convergency 
whenever the extent of the survey shall attain a departure of 
one-half degree of longitude. 

Curves and bearings of tangents shall be noted on the maps 
and profiles in the manner shown on the samples furnished. 
When practicable give true bearings instead of magnetic. 
State which is given. 

To avoid cumulative errors, when platting lines, all angles 
must be laid off from some standard bearing, using the calcu- 
lated course for this purpose. This can be done best by laying 
off any convenient bearing in the general direction of the sur- 



650 APPENDIX J. 

vey and transferring all angles turned from this line by 
parallel rules or triangles, to the last point scaled. This 
will, on located lines, require all tangents to be calculated 
from intersection to intersection. 

Indicate on the map, or otherwise, the width and extent of 
extra right of way necessary for stations, side tracks, "Ys," 
borrowpits, etc., on the line of the road. 

Profiles, when completed, shall contain all the information 
called for on the sample copy furnished from the office of 
Chief Engineer, and arranged in the manner shown thereon. 
The original profiles must be made on the regular profile 
paper. Tracings must be made in sections of twenty miles 
from the original profile, and sent to the office of the Division 
Engineer, from which the necessary blue-prints will be made 
for contractors. Intersecting grades are to be connected by 
vertical curves, having a rate of change of grade per station 
of 0.05 feet, except on summit curves where the rate of change 
may be 0.1 foot, or more per station. 

Profiles should show alignment drawn in red near the bot- 
tom of the paper. The direction of the curve is shown by 
drawing the radial lines to an intersection on their proper 
side, at the middle of the curve. 

Progress profiles will be sent each month to the Chief 
Engineer's office, properly colored to show all work done to 
and included in the last estimate, on the part of the road in 
charge of the engineer. These profiles must show all work 
done during the preceding month; not only grading, but de- 
tails of bridges and culverts built, with their exact location; 
description and location of all buildings, or structures of any 
kind, wells dug, main track, sidings, or "Ys" laid, etc. The 
depth that piles are driven below the surface of the ground 
should be indicated by dotted lines, showing the point of 
lowest pile in bent; the mud sills of trestles should be shown 
by a short heavy line, and on steep side hills the elevation 
of each mud sill should be indicated in the same way. Prints 
from "Solar" negatives of tracing profiles in the Chief Engi- 
neer's office will be furnished for progress profiles. The com- 
pleted profiles will be retained in the office of the Division 
Engineer at the close of the work. 



APPENDIX I. 651 

The standard progress colors are as follows: 

January Chrome yellow. July Sepia. 

February Carmine. August Emerald green. 

March Payne's gray. September Cobalt blue. 

April Deep chrome. October Vermilion. 

May Prussian blue. November Indian red. 

June Burnt Sienna. December Sap green. 

Track profiles must be prepared in all cases when neces- 
sary for the guidance of the contractor, showing, in addition 
to the ordinary alignment notes of the profile, the number 
and length of rails to each tangent, the number of long and 
short rails in each curve, and the ordinates to which they are 
to be curved. 

Field books must indicate each day's work, giving date. 
The flyleaf of each book must show in ink the name of the 
branch or division, nature of survey, kind of notes, name of 
engineer, name of instrumentman, or topographer, and the 
terminal points contained in the book. See that all sub- 
jects contained therein are properly indexed and that all 
notes of adopted or abandoned lines are properly marked as 
such. Have notes so plain that they may be understood by 
any one. 

The original field notes should be sent in to the general 
oflice when the survey is completed. In case the original 
notes are not in good condition have them copied in new 
book, giving a revised and complete record of alignment, 
levels, topography, right of way notes and other data per= 
taining to the line. 

Diaries will be furnished to engineers and instrumentmen 
on construction. Details of each day's work must be entered, 
giving dates of staking out work, commencement and com- 
pletion of work on excavation, bridges and buildings; rise 
and fall of streams and other data of future value. These 
diaries must be returned to the Assistant Engineer at the 
close of the work. 

RIGHT OF WAY. 

As soon as the construction of a line has been ordered 
the Division Engineer will issue the necessary instructions 
for securing the right of way, which will be uniformly 100 
feet in width, except where additional land is required for 



652 APPENDIX I. 

station grounds, borrowpits, wide slopes or other purposes. 

The right of way should be secured as rapidly as possible, 
contracts for same being taken and forwarded immediately 
to Division Engineer's office, where deeds and vouchers will 
be made. 

The right of way agent will be under the orders of the 
Division Engineer, but will consult freely with the Assist- 
ant Engineer in charge of the line, and will make all agree- 
ments as to fences, cattle guards, road crossings, ditches, etc., 
subject to his approval. 

The description of irregular tracts which are acquired by 
the company will be by metes and bounds, obtained by 
actual survey. The description of right of way through 
government subdivisions will be made in the following form: 

A strip, piece or parcel of land 100 feet in width, situated 
in the northwest quarter of the northwest quarter of section 
10, in township 2 north, range 1 west (S. 10, T. 2 N., R. 1 W.), 
Madison county, Montana, and having for its boundaries 
two lines that are parallel with and equidistant from the 

center line of the railroad of the Railway 

Company, as the same is now located (and constructed). For 
a more particular description, reference may be had to the 
plat drawn upon and made a part of this deed. 

The description of lots in platted tracts should be in the 
following form: 

Lot seven (7), block six (6), in Smith's addition to Helena, 
Lewis and Clarke county, Montana, according to the recorded 
plat thereof. 

All plats drawn upon deeds should give ties to the gov- 
ernment survey points or to some fixed and indestructible 
points, so that the land can be located from the description 
and the plat. 

As soon as the right of way has been definitely secured, 
plats of the same will be prepared in Division Engineer's 
office, conforming to standard scale and plan furnished by 
Chief Engineer, to whom they will be forwarded when com- 
pleted, accompanied by the deeds. 

ESTIMATES. 
A careful estimate must be made showing the probable 
cost of every located line and of every structure or special 



APPENDIX I. 65-3 

work upon which a report is ordered. Great precaution 
must be taken to include everything necessary to complete 
the work ready for operation or use. This applies to work 
to be done by both the Construction and Engineering Depart- 
ments. 

In case it is necessary to make the estimate before the 
exact quantities are determined, it must be replaced by an- 
other whenever the data can be obtained. 

In monthly and partial estimates, make returns of grad- 
ing to nearest ten yards, and masonry to nearest five yards. 

Monthly statement (form 106), showing expenditures to 
date and comparison with the preliminary estimate, will be 
prepared by Assistant Engineer at the close of each month 
and sent to Division Engineer, who will note and forward to 
the Chief Engineer. 

No estimate or statement of quantities will be given to 
contractors or sub-contractors not bearing the certificate of 
the Assistant Engineer. 

The standard record book, form No. 62 of the Company, 
will be furnished each engineer in charge of a residency. 
The notes are to be written in ink, when final. The record 
should contain cross-section notes, and all other data per- 
taining to calculation of quantities, classification in detail, 
ground and grade elevations, alignment, material or labor 
accounts; and the data for every item embraced in the final 
estimate. A summary will be made giving the final estimate 
in sections of one mile, conforming to the mile-posts of the 
branch or division. The record must be kept up, as far as 
possible, while work is in progress, and must be turned in 
to the Assistant Engineer at the close of the work, and finally 
checked in the office of the Division Engineer. 

GENERAL. 

The plans and work of the company are its private prop- 
erty and must not be imparted to any one. Reports must 
be made to the immediate superior of the engineer or em- 
ployee, and to no one else. 

The rates of pay of all employees will be fixed by the 
Chief Engineer, and no change of rate so fixed shall be made 
without his authority first obtained. 



654 APPENDIX 7. 

Damage, destruction or loss of property of the Company 
fhrough carelessness or wilfullness, must be made good by 
the individual at fault. 

Engineers in immediate charge of parties are responsible 
for all Company property in their charge, and are expected 
to prevent extravagance and waste in the use of supplies 
of all kinds furnished by the Company. 

Locating and resident engineers will forward a weekly re 
port to their superior officers, reporting progress of work ana 
all other general items of interest, pertaining to the work. 
This will be accompanied by the force report. 

All engineers must make themselves familiar with the 
conditions of the contracts and specifications for work under 
their charge; they should attend to any reasonable request 
of contractors, furnish them heights, lines, stakes, plans, 
etc., whenever necessary, and in general do all things requisite 
to enable contractors to work to advantage and without 
delay. 

During construction each line will be divided into resi- 
dencies of convenient length, as directed by Division Engi- 
neer, each in charge of a Resident Engineer, and provided 
with such assistants, camp equipage, transportation and 
other outfit as may be necessary. 

The nature of the work and the various facilities must be 
carefully considered as soon as the construction is ordered, 
so that competitive proposals may be obtained for every- 
thing that will be required. 

Each Assistant Engineer in charge of a line will submit, 
for approval of the Division Engineer, a list of all buildings, 
sidings, Ys, etc., with proposed location of same, required on 
his work. The Division Engineer should submit all pro- 
posed plans for station or terminal facilities to the proper 
officials of the Operating Department for criticism, and their 
suggestions must receive careful consideration. 

The arrangement of all stations and terminals and the ap- 
purtenant tracks, the location of water tanks, and all mat- 
ters having a bearing upon the operation of any line, should 
also be submitted for criticism before construction. 

Engineers must prosecute their work economically and 
will be expected to work to the estimates closely. 



APPENDIX I. 655 

All structures will be built in accordance with the stan- 
dard plans of the Company, and no deviation will be made 
from same except by authority of the Chief Engineer. Stan- 
dard plans will be furnished from Chief Engineer's office, 
and at the close of each piece of work all that have been used 
on same, by engineers or contractors, will be returned to 
Division Engineer. 

The usual classification of grading will be earth, loose 
rock and solid rock. If cemented gravel or soft rock in 
place or other distinctive material exists in considerable 
quantities, the fact must be reported to the Chief Engineer 
in order that it may have a proper classification assigned 
to it. 

In staking out grading, have number of station marked 
on face of center stake, and cut or fill on its back. On 
slope stakes have cut or fill marked on the face, and number 
of station on the back. 

Banks must be made full and regular. Care must be taken 
to avoid sags between stations. The roadbed throughout 
must conform strictly to the standard plan. 

In regions swept by strong winds, where the snow-fall is 
liable to be great and drifting to occur, all structures will 
be put on that side of the track opposite the prevailing 
winds. Usually this will be the southerly side, and station 
buildings, water stations, switch stands and every kind 
of structure that can cause the formation of drifts, will be 
put on that side. Sidings and spur tracks should be put on 
the same side, where practicable. 

When embankments are rip rapped to protect them from 
action of water, that part of embankment upon which the 
rip rap is placed should generally be made with slope not 
less than two to one. If the embankment has been finished 
at a steeper slope, the rip rap should usually be so placed 
that its exterior slope shall be two to one. 

Surface ditches must be laid out with great care to pre- 
vent water from running down the slope of cut, or against 
embankments, or being carried to any point where it can 
act injuriously upon any part of the work. The ditches 
should be made of ample size; not less than one foot wide 



656 APPENDIX /. 

at the bottom in any case; and if the area is considerable 
from which water may accumulate, they should be made 
two feet wide or more at the bottom. Material excavated in 
their construction should usually be thrown on the side 
toward the cut. In few matters is there more opportunity 
to show good judgment than in judiciously disposing of sur- 
face water about cuts. All cuts must have surface ditches 
and thorough drainage. 

In turning streams care must be taken to make embank- 
ments across old channels strong enough to resist the action 
of currents. In such cases the width of the embankment 
should usually be made not less than ten (10) feet from the 
center line on the side against which the current will act, 
with slope of two to one. In cases of soft, spongy, or sliding 
material, this width should be increased on the exposed 
side. It should be borne in mind that it is less costly to build 
an embankment with excess of strength at first, than to 
have it washed out and be compelled to rebuild it. 

In turning rapid, turbulent streams, take special and full 
precautions to prevent the new embankments from being 
washed away while building before they are high and strong 
enough for effectual resistance. 

In building culverts and other waterways of perishable ma- 
terials, ample allowance in size must be made for reconstruc- 
ing them at a future time of durable materials. Wherever 
practicable iron culvert pipes should be hauled ahead and 
placed in position before the embankments are completed. 

Vitrified tile pipe of double strength will be used under road 
crossings. 

In building permanent box culverts of stone or brick, the 
smallest opening to be allowed is nine square feet, clear of 
all obstructions. The height of the opening of a culvert 
should never be less than its width. The greatest care 
should be taken to secure the foundations of all culverts and 
water conduits. 

Stream diversions, even when of considerable magnitude, 
usually prove much cheaper in first cost and also in subse- 
quent maintenance than the bridging otherwise required, 
particularly when the excavated material is used in embank- 
ments. 



APPENDIX I. 657 

The natural "scour'* of the stream may sometimes be re- 
lied upon to widen channel excavations of small original 
cross-section, but in all cases due precautions must be taken 
to insure final cross-sections of full and ample proportions. 

Pile and trestle bridges, not required in part or in whole 
for waterway, are too frequently constructed in order to save 
time or to avoid real or supposed diflSculties in forming the 
embankments. The maintenance cost of such bridges is 
many times in excess of that of embankments of equal first 
cost, and no bridges of this character should be built unless 
the cost of the embankments otherwise necessary exceeds 
both the first cost of such bridges and the subsequent cost 
of filling same by train or otherwise. 

Thorough drainage is a maxim to be impressed on the 
mind and practice of every one engaged in construction, and 
engineers must beware of being deceived or misled in so- 
called "rainless districts,'* for experience proves that some- 
times (perhaps at long intervals), most destructive and un- 
controllable fioods occur in such localities. 

Top of bridge stringers will be set 0.25 foot above regular 
profile grade, and regular grade changed about 100 feet to 
meet it. This will apply in all cases, unless otherwise 
ordered. 

In the construction of pile and trestle bridges a competent 
inspector should be retained, whose duty it shall be to keep 
a record of all piles driven. The inspector's record must show 
length of piles, depth to which each pile is driven, sinking in 
inches by the last three blows of the hammer, weight of 
hammer, and fall in feet of same, and amount of piles cut off. 

Engineers should endeavor to secure, wherever practicable, 
at reasonable expense, undergrade or overhead highway 
crosrings. Bridges and culverts can frequently be utilized at 
slight expense for undergrade crossings for stock by making 
necessary openings in right of way fence. 

Before the completion of the work, all construction material 
left over and scattered along the line must be picked up and 
returned to the material yard. Refuse will be burned or 
otherwise disposed of. 

38 Vol. 13 



658 



APPENDIX L 



SUPPLIES FOR 14 MEN, 30 DAYS. 



400 lbs. Flour. 

50 lbs. Buckwheat flour. 

40 lbs. Oatmeal. 

30 lbs. Cornmeal. 

150 lbs. Sugar. 

20 lbs. Salt. 

10 lbs Tapioca 

10 lbs. Sago. 

10 lbs. Baking Powder. 

2 lbs. Mustard. 

1 lb. Pepper, ground. 

% lb. Ginger, ground. 

% lb. Cinnamon, ground. 

1/4 lb. Allspice, ground. 

100 lbs. Ham. 

100 lbs. Bacon. 

25 lbs. Dried beef. 

25 lbs. Codfish. 

400 lbs. Potatoes. 

1 case Pears. 

1 case Cherries. 

2 cases Tomatoes. 
2 cases Peaches. 
2 cases Corn. 

1 case Peas. 

1 case Condensed milk. 

50 lbs. Coffee. 

10 lbs. Tea. 

40 lbs. Lard. 

12 packages Yeast cakes. 



25 lbs. Cheese. 

50 lbs. Beans. 

25 lbs. Rice. 

10 lbs. Corn starch. 

1 box Macaroni. 
10 lbs. Barley. 

1 box Soap. 

1 bottle Lemon extract. 

1 bottle Vanila extract. 
10 lbs. Currants. 

1 box Raisins. 

5 gallons Syrup. 

6 bottles Pickles. 
20 lbs. Onions. 

1 gallon Vinegar. 

6 bottles Tomato catsup. 

1 case Corned beef. 

3 lbs. Baking soda. 
50 lbs. Evaporated apples. 
50 lbs. Dried peaches. 
50 lbs. Dried prunes or plums. 
^ lb. Nutmegs. 

1 box Soda crackers. 
12 boxes Matches. 

1 box Candles. 

2 lbs. Lye. 

10 lbs. Sal soda. 
60 lbs. Butter. 

8 bottles Worcestershire sauce. 

1 case Coal oil. 



Eggs, fresh meat and vegetables as required, if they can 
be obtained from the farming community. 



ENGINEER EQUIPMENT AND STATIONERY (FOR ONE 
FIELD PARTY). 



1 Transit. 
1 Level. 

1 Chain, 10 extra links, 1 

extra handle. 
4 Flag poles. 

2 Level rods. 
1 Hand level. 
1 Barometer. 

1 Pocket compass. 
1 Clinometer. 
1 Protractor, paper. 
48 Thumb tacks. 
6 Camel hair brushes. 
1 Scale, triangular, decimal. 
1 Straight edge, 36 ins., steel, 

nickel plated. 
1 Drafting board and trestles. 

1 Stationery chest, tray and 

board. 

2 Hand axes and extra han- 

dles. 

3 to 6 Axes and extra handles. 
1 Hatchet. 



2 balls Twine. 

2 yards Red flannel. 

2 yards White flannel. 

1 Sounding rod, 3 joints, 8 ft. 
each. 

6 6-H Pencils. 
12 4-H Pencils. 
12 No. 2 Pencils. 
12 Timber leads. 
100 Manila envelopes, large. 
100 Manila envelopes, small. 

6 Colored pencils, red and blue. 
12 Penholders. 

1 box Assorted pens. 
12 Crow quill pens. 

1 Slab for India ink. 

2 Inkstands. 

1 Pocket inkstand. 

2 Pads letter paper. 
2 Pads notepaper. 

2 Pyramids pins. 
6 Rubber erasers. 
1 Steel eraser. 



APPENDIX I. 



659 



1 Water keg, 2 gallons. 

2 Brush hooks. 

2 50-ft. Tapes in cases, 2 
without cases. 

1 Bottle mucilage. 

2 Bottles India ink. 
1 stick India ink. 

1 pint Combined writing fluid, 
stone bottle. 

1 small bottle Red ink. 

2 doz. Shipping tags. 

2 doz. Shipping tags. 

5 Transit books. 
10 Level books. 

10 Typography books. 

6 Scratch blocks. 
12 Blotters. 

1 Time check book. 
1 doz. Property reports. 
1 block Vouchers. 
12 papers Tacks, 8 oz., tinned. 

3 quires Wrapping paper. 



3 quires Foolscap. 

3 quires Journal paper. 

1 box McGilTs paper fasteners. 
50 sheets Cross-section paper, 
lOths. 

4 Triangles, 10, 8, 7, and 5 

ins., 30 and 60 degrees. 
30 yards Drawing paper, 24 

ins wide. 
1 roll Plate A profile paper, 

divided. 
1 roll Tracing cloth, 30 ins. 
1 Stylus book, with carbons. 
24 Time returns. 
1 Book of receipts. 
1 Pad. 

1 Book rules and regulations. 
1 Book transportation rules. 

1 box Rubber bands, assorted. 

2 Tin map cases, 6x36 ins. 
2 lbs. Keil. 

2 quires Legal cap. 



In the case of extended explorations beyond civilization 
a necessary supply of medicines should be provided. 



CAMP EQUIPMENT (FOR ONE FIELD PARTY). 



4 Tents and flies, 14x14 or 

14x16. 
1 Grindstone. 
1 Monkey wrench. 
1 Spade. 
1 Hand saw. 
1 Cross-cut saw. 
1 Alarm clock. 
1 Two-gallon keg. 
1 Washtub, board and boiler. 
1 bundle Sail twine and 

needles. 

1 Sail palm. 

10 yards Canvas. 

2 Three-cornered files. 
1 Flat file. 

10 yards Toweling. 
1 Scrub brush. 

1 Broom. 

3 Candlesticks. 

3 Stand lamps and 6 chim- 

neys. 

2 Stewpans. 

1 Water pail. 

2 Griddles. 

1 Coffee mill. 

4 Drip pans, 12x17. 

1 Five-gallon dish pan. 
1 Five-gallon bread pan. 
4 Large iron spoons, 12 ins. 
1 Soup ladle. 
1 Cake turner. 
1 Steel. 

3 Butcher knives. 
1 Chopping bowl. 



1 Flesh fork. 

1 Biscuit cutter. 

36 Teaspoons. 

36 Tablespoons. 

36 Knives. 

36 Forks. 

1 Carving knife. 

1 Carving fork. 

1 Tea kettle. 

1 Tea strainer. 
24 Coffee cups. 

2 Candle lanterns. 

3 Washbasins. 
2 Dippers. 

1 Lunch basket. 

1 Dinner table. 

2 Trestles for tables. 

1 Cook table. 

2 Sibley stoves, sheet iron. 

1 Cook stove. 

3 pieces pipe, with dampers. 
12 pieces Pipe without dampers. 

2 iron pots. 

1 Three-gallon coffee pot. 

1 Two-gallon tea pot. 

1 Large frying pan. 

1 Small frying pan. 

2 No. 28 Stew kettles, galvan- 

ized iron. 

24 Pint cups. 

36 Plates. 

1 No. 24 Stew kettles, galvan- 
ized iron. 

12 Pie plates. 

4 Three-quart Pans. 



660 



APPENDIX I. 



Chopping knife. 
Pepper boxes. 
Sieve. 
Steamer. 
Colander. 
Can openers. 
Meat saw. 
Potato masher. 
Rolling pin. 
Nutmeg grater. 
Bread board. 



10 yards Oil cloth. 



4 Four-quart pans. 

4 Six-quart Pans. 
18 pint Pans. 

3 Tin pot covers. 

2 Three-gallon Galvanized wa* 

ter pails. 

1 Two-gallon Tin water pail. 

1 Pick and handle. 

2 Mess chests. 

5 lbs. lOd. Nails. 

100 ft. %'iVL, Manila rope. 



APPENDIX J. 

DETAILED RULES GOVERNING CONSTRUCTION OF TRACK 

OF RAILWAYS* AND VARIOUS SPECIFICATIONS 

AND TABLES, GIVING DETAILS IN REGARD TO 

MATERIAL USED IN CONSTRUCTION. 

TRACK AND BALLAST. 

Preparation of Roadbed. — The standard width of single 
track roadbed at sub-grade is 14 feet on embankments, 20 
feet in earth cuts and 16 feet in rock cuts unless otherwise 
ordered. 

All narrow banks must be widened to the standard width 
from centers, as established by the engineer. 

Transition curves will be used at the end of all curves of 
3 degrees and upwards. The rate of change per degree of 
curvature should preferably not exceed 1 degree for each 
chord of 50 feet in length, except on mountain grades, where 
the chord may be reduced to the minimum length of 25 feet, 
when necessary. 

Short sags should be avoided, and in all cases vertical 
curves should be provided at grade intersections, for which 
the engineer will establish line and grade wherever re- 
quired. 

The roadbed at sub-grade should be crowned to facilitate 
drainage by raising the center 4 to 6 inches higher than 
the sides, making due allowance for ballast in establishing 
final grade elevation. 

Ditches in cuts should be taken out in accordance with 
the standard cross-section as follows: In earth, 3 feet, wide 
at sub-grade, 1 foot deep, with side slopes 1 to 1. In rock 1 
foot wide at sub-grade, 1 foot deep, vertical sides. 

Material used for ballasting, widening banks or raising 
sags should be procured at points where the removal of 



* These rules are in force on the Northern Pacific Railway. 

(661) 



662 APPENDIX J, 

same will benefit the roadbed by widening cuts, reducing 
grades or ditching. Engineers will give this subject their 
special attention. 

Ties. — The number of ties per rail will necessarily vary 
with the width of the ties furnished and will usually be from 
fifteen to seventeen ties per rail length. The minimum width 
between ties must not be less than ten inches. On construc- 
tion, ties will be laid two feet c. to c, or 2,640 ties to the 
mile. 

The best ties will be selected for use at joints, with faces 
not less than eight inches nor more than ten inches wide, 
and must be so placed that the outside bolt will come about 
the center of ties; the maximum spacing between ties at 
joints must not exceed ten inches. 

"Rail cut" ties must be adzed to uniform bearing, old 
spike holes plugged, and joint ties properly spaced for sus- 
pended joints, after the new rails are laid, and before the 
ballast is distributed. 

In order to maintain the standard gauge, three lines of spikes 
must be drawn if old steel rails are replaced by rails of wider 
section. 

Distributing Rails. — The rails may be distributed either 
from the end or sides of train. If distributed from the sides, 
both ends of rail must be dropped simultaneously. Skids 
will invariably be used whenever necessary to unload into 
piles. In all cases the greatest care must be used to avoid in- 
jury to rails by dropping them on hard substances or uneven 
surfaces. 

Curving. — Rails in curves of over 2 degrees must be sep- 
arately curved, and before being placed in track. An Emerson 
rail bender or bender of similar type will invariably be used 
for this purpose. The sledging of rails is positively prohib- 
ited. 

Particular care must be given to insure uniform curvature 
of the rail throughout its length, in accordance with the fol- 
lowing: table of middle ordinates: 



Degs. 


Ins. 


Degs. 


Ins. 


Degs. 


Ins. 


Degs. 


Ins. 


1 


H 


6 


1t% 


11 


2i% 


16 


3?a 


2 


% 


7 


\% 


12 


2if 


17 


4 


3 


W 


8 


H 


13 


3iV 


18 


4Ji 


4 


1 


9 


21/8 


14 


3i«s 


19 


4!4 


5 


1^ 


10 


2% 


15 


3!4 


20 


4i% 



NOTE.— Ordinate at quarters equals three-quarters of middle ordinates. 



APPENDIX J. 663 

Placing Rails in Track. — The rails must be laid to line and 
gauge, and placed in track consecutively, throwing out both 
rails from the old track ahead, as the new rails are laid when 
the track is relaid. Split points will be used for closing 
track for passage of trains. Accurate expansion cannot be 
secured if long stretches of rails are fastened up to one side of 
track and subsequently thrown into line, and this method 
is prohibited. 

The track will be laid with even joints on tangents and 
broken joints on curves, except on sections of frequent curva- 
ture and short tangents less than 1,000 feet in length, where 
broken joints will be maintained throughout. 

To pass from even joints on tangents to broken joints on 
curves, cut and use a rail according to the following rule: 

Cut rail at point distant from center of rail one-half inch 
for each degree of central angle of curve, using short rail on 
inner side of curve. For consecutive curves with short inter- 
vening tangents, obtain the separate sums of right and left 
central angles, subtract the lesser from the greater, and the 
difference will be the required angle. Use short rail on inner 
side of this angle. The length of the short rail must not be 
less than ten feet. 

''Short rails" may be used in inside line of rails in curves 
of large central angle, in order to maintain position of joints 
near center of outer rail, and in such cases the above rule 
must be modified correspondingly. Notes for length of cut or 
short rails will be furnished in advance by the engineer. 

Track centers will be furnished by the engineer every 200 
feet on tangents, every 50 feet on curves and every 25 feet 
on easement curves. The track must be laid to conform 
accurately to the line established. 

To insure perfect alignment at rail ends, the rails should 
be brought squarely together, the splices placed and care- 
fully bolted before spiking. Perfect alignment at rail ends 
is of great importance in order to prevent excessive flange 
wear. 

The position of the brand on the rail is immaterial, whether 
right or left, inside or outside, but its position must be uni- 
form with the contiguous rails, and the brand should not be 
alternated on the same line of rails. 



664 APPENDIX /. 

When relaying track, a convenient method of unloading 
rails from end of car is by means of two 30-foot lines, equip- 
ped with grab hooks on each end, one end to be made fast 
to joints and the other end to slots in ends of rails, using 
the engine for moving the cars. This insures proper spacing, 
and is more economical than unloading from the sides. Use 
roller at end of car when drawing off rail. 

Expansion. — Proper allowance must be made for expansion, 

according to temperature, as follows: 

Temp. Ins. Temp. Ins. 

100° 40 t\ • 

80° yV 20 H 

60° H A 

Proper expansion must be secured by the use of iron shims, 
provided in accordance with the above specifications, except 
where track is laid on a steep grade, when sawed wooden 
shims of proper thickness will be provided. These shims 
must be left in place until track is full spiked, bolted and 
thoroughly anchored. 

In order to prevent rails from "creeping," it is absolutely 
essential that each individual rail shall be so thoroughly 
anchored as to insure freedom from contact with adjoining 
rails. Creeping cannot be prevented if a number of consecu- 
tive rails are in contact. 

Bolting. — The Harvey grip, or other approved form of bolt, 
should be used. At the time the rail is laid, two bolts should 
be placed in each splice, and tightened sufficiently to hold 
rails in line. The remaining bolts should then be placed and 
tightened as soon as possible. Nuts should be tightened a 
second or third time within thirty days after track is laid. 

Inspect the rails before angle bars are tightened, and take 
out kinks or bends by the rail bender. The nuts must be 
screwed up firmly before joints are spiked. 

Gauging. — The standard gauge will be as follows: 

On tangents 4 ft. 8mns 

On curves of l,2and3° 4 *' 8^ " 

On curves of 4, 5 and 6° 4 *' %%. 

On curves of 7, 8 and 9° 4 *' 8| 

On curves of 10, 11 and 12° 4 " 9 

On curves of 13, Hand 15° 4 *' 93^ 

The extra width of gauge on curves should be uniformly 
decreased or tapered off, on the easement curve, from point 
of full curve to point of tangent. 



APPENDIX J. 



665 



Joints and centers should be gauged first and the track 
gauge must be applied at as many points as may be necessary 
to insure perfect and uniform gauge. 

Easement curves must be spiked to gauge at five different 
points within each rail length, and all track must be accu- 
rately gauged when spiked. 

Suitable track gauges for use on tangents and curves, 
which will insure the retention of the proper gauge during the 
operation of spiking, must be used. All track gauges must be 
tested by the engineer or roadmaster at the beginning of 
the working season, and the date of inspection recorded. 

Spiking. — Track must be full spiked, with inside and out- 
side spikes driven in opposite sides of the tie. Spikes must 
be set half their own width from edge of rail and driven verti- 
cally to a full bearing on foot of rail. The prevalent practices 
of driving sloping spikes, or of giving them a final lateral 
blow to close the spikes against the rail will not be permitted. 
So far as possible the spikes will be driven in the best wood 
in the tie, which is usually at the outer edge, and must not 
be redriven in old holes. 

Elevation. — The elevation (in inches) of outer rail upon 
curves will be made in accordance with the following table: 
TABLE OF ELEVATION OF OUTER RAILS ON CURVES. 



De- 
gree 


15. 


20. 


Rat 

25. 


e of spee( 
30. 


i in 
35. 


miles per 


hour 
45. 


50. 60. 


of 






















curve 


ins. 


ins. 


ins. 


ins. 


ms. 


ins. 


ins. ins. ins. 


1 


% 


K 


1^5 


r% 


U 


U\ 


l/s 1% 2n 


2 




H 


H 


U% 


1% 


2% 


2H 3A 4M 


3 


/b 


H 


IM 


m 


2/^ 


3/8 


4 


4ii 7,'s 


4 


s 


It^ 


1% 


2% 


3M 


4^ 


5^ 6^ 


i 




5 


h% 


2j\ 


3 


4 


5K 


6i 


^ 






6 


% 


h% 


2/^ 


3^ 


4ii 


6% 










7 


Uh 


n% 


2% 


4^8 


b% 












8 


u\ 


21/8 


Sj% 


^h 


m 












9 


u% 


2% 


^l 


5A 














10 


iVt 


2% 


4^8 


5if 














12 


IM 


3H 


4if 


7^8 














15 


2i\ 


m 


6i% 
















18 


2^8 


4H 






.... 












20 


2if 


5M 











... 









The greatest elevation must not exceed six inches unless 
otherwise directed. 

The elevation of outer rail on curves must necessarily be 
adapted to speed and other local conditions with due regard 
to safety, comfort and economy of track maintenance, for 
all classes of trains. 



666 APPENDIX J-. 

The elevation on mountain grades should not exceed that 
required for 25 miles per hour. 

The elevation of outer rail must not be continued beyond 
the tangent point, but should decrease uniformly along the 
easement curve from point of maximum curvature to tangent 
point. 

To ascertain the elevation required at points on easement 
curves, trackmen are required to use a cord of standard 
length, the middle ordinate of which will be equal to the 
proper elevation, as follows: 
Speed. Length of cord. Speed. Length of cord. 

20 miles per hour 31.74 ft. 40 miles per hour 63.48 ft. 

25 miles per hour 39.68 ft. 45 miles per hour. . . .7L42 ft. 

30 miles per hour 47.61 ft. 60 miles per hour 79.35 ft. 

35 miles per hour 55.55 ft. 

This method is applicable to all curves, and aids in maintain- 
ing true alignment, as all ordinates should be equal on full 
centered portions of curves, and ordinates must decrease uni- 
formly on easement curves from full elevation to zero at tan- 
gent point. In using the cord to ascertain elevation, it should 
be stretched and firmly held at both ends against the inner 
face of rail on inside of curve. The middle ordinate will then 
be equal to the required elevation and can be measured by a 
foot rule, or by attaching a short piece of graduated tape to 
the cord at its center. 

All track levels must be tested by the engineer or roadmas- 
ter at the beginning of the working season, and the date of 
inspection recorded. Sluggish bubble tubes should be re- 
placed. 

Tie-plates. — The standard form of tie-plate will be used, 
with the standard 72-lb. rail section, in lieu of rail braces. 

Tie-plates will be used whenever necessary to prevent tie 
cutting, generally on curves of 3 degrees or over, depending 
upon local conditions. The widest margin must invariably 
be placed on the outer side of rail. 

On tangents and light curves, but two spikes will be used in 
each plate. On sharper curves, three or four spikes will be 
used, when necessary. In cases of unusual difficulty in main- 
taining gauge on mountain grades and sharp curves, before 



APPENDIX J. Q^7 

applying tie-plates the ties may be dappe'^ to allow a sufficient 
inclination to the rails to check any tendency of the rails to 
overturn, or to spread, observing due care to maintain gauge. 

In laying these plates, the line side of the tie is marked, and 
the plate put on, the other plate being then put on in its 
proper position by gauging it from the line plate with a gauge 
rod having lugs to fit the spike holes. The plates may be 
forced into the tie by a hydraulic press, or in the track by 
striking vertically with a paver's rammer, or with a short 
section of rail provided with cross-bar handles. In putting 
plates on before the rails are laid, a wooden or metal block 
should be placed on the plate to distribute the blow. If 
put on. after rails are laid, the rail may be lifted, the plate 
slipped in, an iron plate placed upon each projecting end 
of the plate, and these two plates struck simultaneously by 
two strikers with spike mauls; or, one end of the plate 
may be settled into the tie, and the free end then driven with 
a sledge, causing the flanges to plow their way through the 
wood under the rail. 

Rail Braces. — Rail braces will be used when necessary with 
rail sections for which tie-plates are not provided, generally 
on curves of 4 degrees and upwards. On curves of less de- 
gree, double spiking will usually be sufficient. The braces 
should always be placed in pairs on the opposite ends of the 
same tie. 

Frogs and Switches. — Switches must be put in track in 
accordance with the standard plans. When temporary sid- 
ings are put in, the main line rails must not be cut, but short 
closure rails must be provided to fill the space between frog 
and the adjacent rail. Double spiked short rails should be 
used for this purpose. 

Ballasting. — All spikes should be driven down before ballast 
is distributed. Ballast should not be distributed until road- 
bed is of full width and all unsuitable material removed. 
When material is unfit for use as ballast, it should be cleaned 
out from bottom of tie and used for widening the banks. 
Where there is trouble in heaving, or wet spots, the material 
should be taken out to such depth and in such a manner as to 
insure perfect drainage. Care must be taken to avoid wasting 
ballast down the sides of slopes, or otherwise. 



668 APPENDIX /. 

The depth of ballast will be determined in accordance with 
the local conditions, and the character and amount of ballast 
already in place, if any. In general, not less than 8 inches of 
good material will be required under ties. 

Tamping. — Tamp the entire length of ties on new track. 
Special pains should be taken to insure thorough tamping 
from end of tie to 1 foot inside of rail. On old track the 
center should be filled and lightly tamped. 

Tamp joint and second ties thoroughly. Thorough tamping 
of the second tie from joints is of equal importance with that 
required by the joint ties, and will prevent the formation of 
cracks starting from upper edge of splices by reducing the up- 
ward deflection of joints when a wheel is over the second tie. 

Material for filling and ballasting must not be taken from, 
slopes of embankments. When ballasting is completed the 
track must be in perfect line, surface and gauge, in accordance 
with the stakes furnished by the engineer. 

Ballast Cross-Section. — Rock ballast should be filled in 
level with top of tie from center to 2 feet outside of rail, slopes 
1 to 1. 

Gravel ballast must be finished to the standard cross-sec- 
tion, which is as follows: 

At the center and for 1 foot on each side thereof, the top ol 
ballast will be even with the top of ties, and thence carried out 
with a straight uniform slope, passing 4 inches above bottom 
of ties at ends, to a point 2^^ feet outside of rail, thence to an 
intersection with the roadbed, with slopes of 1^/^ to 1. 

If material is used which is more or less impervious to 
water the slopes should be carried to an intersection with 
roadbed on a line with bottom of ties at ends. 

The practice of crowning the ballast above top of tie at cen- 
ter causes dusty track and rots the tie at the center, and is 
not permitted, except when absolutely required for drainage 
on account of the character of material used for ballasting. 

Supervision. — The engineer will furnish all necessary eleva- 
tions, stakes and notes, and will make frequent inspections 
during the progress of track laying, in order to insure com- 
pliance with the specifications, promptly reporting defects to 
the roadmasters and superintendents. 



APPENDIX J. 669 

SPECIFICATIONS FOR STANDARD ROADBED AND 

TRACK.* 

1. Roadbed. — The surface of the roadbed should be graded 
to a regular and uniform sub-grade, sloping gradually from 
the center towards the ditches. 

2. Ballast. — There shall be a uniform depth of six (6) to 
twelve (12) inches of well broken stone, or gravel, cleaned 
from dust, by passing over a screen of one-quarter-inch mesh, 
spread over the roadbed and surfaced to a true grade, upon 
which the ties are to be laid. After the ties and rails have 
been properly laid and surfaced, the ballast must be filled up 
as shown on standard plan; and also between the main tracks 
and sidings where stone ballast is used. All stone ballast to 
be of uniform size, the stone used must be of an approved 
quality, broken uniformly, not larger than a cube that will 
pass through a two and one-half (2i/^) inch ring. On embank- 
ments that are not well settled, the surface of the roadbed 
shall be brought up with cinder, gravel or some other suita- 
ble material. 

3. Cross-ties. — The ties are to be regularly placed upon the 
ballast. They must be properly and evenly placed, with ten 
(10) inches between the edges of bearing surface at joints, 
with intermediate ties evenly spaced; and the ends on the out- 
side on double track, and on the right-hand side going north 
or west on single track, lined up parallel with the rails. The 
ties must not be notched under any circumstances ; but, should 
they be twisted, they must be made true with the adze, that 
the rails may have an even bearing over the whole breadth of 
the tie. For all tracks on main line and branch roads the 
rules governing the use of cross-ties shall be as follows: 

a. First-class cross-ties shall be used in tracks where pas- 
senger and freight trains run at full speed. 

b. For tracks where the trains run at slow speed new sec- 
ond-class ties shall be used. For all tracks in yards, or tem- 
porary tracks laid for construction purposes or otherwise, 
second-class and cull ties, or good second-hand ties taken out 
of main track shall be used. 



♦Used by the Pennsylvania Railroad Company. 



670 APPENDIX J. 

c. On all running tracks where the weight of rail is sev- 
enty pounds per yard and over, fourteen ties shall be used to 
each thirty feet of track, and for all tracks in yards and for 
temporary use, not more than twelve ties shall be used for 
each thirty feet of track. 

d. In removing cross-ties from the main tracks, they shall 
be taken out only as they become unfitted for service, in the 
manner generally known as "spotting ties,** and not by entire 
renewals in continuous sections, and Sub-division Foremen 
will be held responsible for the proper observance of this 
rule. It shall be the duty of the Supervisor or his Assistant 
to walk over the track with the Foreman and personally in- 
spect the ties to be renewed before he authorizes the same to 
be taken out and replaced with new ones. 

4. Line and Surface. — The track shall be laid in true line 
and surface; the rails are to be laid and spiked after the ties 
have been bedded in the ballast; and on curves, the proper 
elevation must be given to the outer rail and carried uniformly 
around the curve. This elevation should be commenced from 
fifty (50) to three hundred (300) feet back of the point of 
curvature, depending on the degree of the curve and speed 
of trains, and increased uniformly to the latter point, where 
the full elevation is attained. The same method should be 
adopted in leaving the curve. 

5. Joints. — The joints of the rails shall be exactly midway 
between the joint ties, and the joint on one line of rail must be 
opposite the center of the rail on the other line of the same 
track. A Fahrenheit thermometer should be used when lay- 
ing rails, and care taken to arrange the openings between rails 
in direct proportion to the following temperatures and dis- 
tances: At a temperature of zero (0^), a distance of five 
sixteenths (5-16) of an inch; at fifty degrees (50^), five thirty- 
seconds (5-32) of an inch; and in extreme summer heat, of 
say one hundred degrees (100^) and over, one sixteenth (1-16) 
of an inch must be left between the ends of the rails of thirty 
feet in length to allow for expansion. The splices m,ust be 
properly put on with the full number of bolts, nuts and nut- 
locks, and the nuts placed on inside of rails, except on rails of 
sixty pounds per yard and under, where they shall be placed 



APPENDIX J. 671 

on the outside, and screwed up tight. The rails must be 
spiked both on the inside and outside at each tie, on straight 
lines as well as on curves, and the spikes driven in such posi- 
tion as to keep the ties at right angles to the rails. 

6. Gauge. — The gauge of the track shall be four feet eight 
and one-half inches at all points, excepting on curves of four 
(4) degrees and over, or on heavy grades against the traffic, 
or on tracks used exclusively for freiirht trains, where the 
gauge shall be four feet nine inches. The standard distance 
between gauge lines of the guard rail and the wing rail of 
frogs shall be four feet five inches in all cases. 

7. Switches. — The switches and frogs should be kept well 
lined up and in good surface. Switch signals must be kept 
bright and in good order, and the distance signal and facing 
point lock used for all switches where trains run against the 
points, except on single-track branch roads. 

8. Sidings. — All company sidings shall be kept in as good 
order as practicable, using for this purpose second-class rails 
and ties, or the partly-worn materials taken from main tracks. 
Owners of private sidings must be required to keep their 
sidings in safe condition for use at all times. Throw-off 
points must be used to prevent cars on siding being run or 
blown out on main tracks. For spur sidings the end should 
be curved away from the main tracks. 

9. Ditches. — The cross-section of ditches at the highest 
point must be of the width and depth as shown on the stand- 
ard drawing, and graded parallel with the track, so as to pass 
water freely during heavy rains and thoroughly drain the 
ballast and roadbed. The line of the bottom of the ditch 
must be made parallel with the rails, and well and neatly de- 
fined, at the standard distance from the outside rail. All nec- 
essary cross-drains must be put in at proper intervals. 
Earth taken from ditches or elsewhere must not be left at or 
near the ends of the ties, thrown up on the slopes of cuts, nor 
on the ballast, but must be deposited over the sides of embank- 
ments. Berme ditches shall be provided to protect the slopes 
of cuts, where necessary. The channels of streams for a 
considerable distance above the road should be examined, and 
brush, drift and other obstructions removed. Ditches, cul- 



672 APPENDIX J. 

verts and box drains should be cleared of all obstructions, and 
the outlets and inlets of the same kept open to allow a free 
flow of water at all times. 

10. Road Crossings. — The road-crossing planks shall be se- 
curely spiked; the planking on inside of rails should be three- 
quarters (%) of an inch, and on outside of rails it should be 
one-eighth ( % ) of an inch, below the' top of rail, and two and 
one-half inches from the gauge line. The ends and inside 
edges of planks should be beveled off as shown on standard 
plan. 

11. Policing. — Station platforms, fences and grounds at sta- 
tions shall be kept clean and in good order, and the telegraph 
poles, mile posts, whistle boards, bridge boards and other 
standard signs kept in proper position, and trees near the tele- 
graph line should be kept trimmed to prevent the branches 
touching the wires during high winds. All old material, such 
as old ties, rails, splices, car material, etc., shall be gathered 
up at least once a week and neatly piled at proper points. 
Briers and undergrowth on the right of way must be kept cut 
close to the ground. 

12. Use of materials. — Proper judgment and caution must be 
exercised by Assistant Engineers, Supervisors and Foremen 
against extravagant use of materials, as they will be held 
strictly responsible for the same, and for any deviation from 
these specifications. 



SPECIFICATIONS FOR CROSS-TIES.* 

No. 1 Pole Ties must be well and smoothly hewed or sawed 
out of sound, straight, thrifty timber; must be eight feet 
long, with sawed ends, and uniformly six inches thick between 
faces; each face side to be eight inches wide, or wider, at the 
narrowest place inside the bark, and the faces to be straight, 
truly lined and parallel with each other. Ties sawed six 
inches by ten inches wide, or wider, and free from wane, 
shakes or unsoundness of any kind will be accepted as No. 1. 

No. 2 ties must be the same as No. 1, except that each face 
side of hewed or sawed pole ties may be not less than six 



*Used by the Chicago 6l Northwestern Railway Co. 



APPENDIX J. 



673 



inches, and of manufactured split ties, and of sawed ties not 
less than eight inches. No. 1 and No. 2 ties must be piled 
separately. Inspections monthly. 

All Ties to be delivered on ground at or above the grade of 
railway track, within thirty feet of same, subject to the in- 
spection and count of the Purchasing Agent, or any authorized 
Agent of the Company, whose action in counting and receiv- 
ing or rejecting the ties offered shall be final and conclusive. 



Table and Figure giving dimensions of rails of the Ameri- 
can Society of Engineer's Standard; 




Fig. 379. 

RAIL SECTION. 
39 Vol. 13 



674 



APPENDIX J. 



Percentage of Metal: 

In the Head 

In the Web 

In the Flange., 

Base, inches 

Height *' 

RadofWeb, " 

'* Head, '* 

Angle A, Degrees 

Angle B, " 

Dimension C, inches 

D, " 

E, *' 

g', " ;....' 

*• H. - 

I, ♦• 

J, " 

K. " 

L, " 



too 


90 


80 


75 


70 


65 


60 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


per 


per 


per 


per 


per 


per 


per 


yd. 


yd. 


yd. 


yd. 


yd. 


yd. 


yd. 


42 


42 


42 


42 


42 


42 


42 


21 


21 


21 


21 


21 


21 


21 


37 


37 


37 


37 


37 


37 


37 


f>% 


5% 


5 


4fg- 


4% 


4/b 


4H 


5M 


5% 


5 


m 


4% 


4/« 


4K 


12 


12 


12 


12 


12 


12 


12 


12 


12 


12 


12 


12 


12 


12 


13 


13 


13 


13 


13 


13 


13 


13 


13 


13 


13 


13 


13 


13 


2% 


2^ 


2V4 


2^ 


2/« 


2^? 


2^8 


n% 


U^ 


\V^ 


Ml 


1-^ 


1^% 


U^ 


3«\ 


2^f 


2% 


2^t 


2-^1 


2% 


2hl 


3t.V 


5.«, 


% 


U 


u 


U 


^ 


T*". 


^ 


1% 


^ 


l". 


^% 


Vr 


t'b 


T^ 


t'b 


T^S 


T^« 


i'b 


^ 


M 


M 


H 


^ 


^/i 


H 


M 


K 


H 


K 


M 


M 


H 


A 


T^e 


%i 


-11 


il 


U 


U 


1^6 


1^6 


1^6 


i'b 


i'b 


I'e 


r\ 



55 
lbs. 
per 

yd. 



42 
21 
37 

4x^6 

12 

12 
13 
13 

2H 

m 







Fig. 380. 

PENNSYLVANIA R. R. STANDARD RAIL. SECTION. 

100 pounds per yard and standard joint. 

2 bars, 34 inches long, 78.7 lbs, bolts, % x 4»4 inches, 7.5 lbs 



APPENDIX J. 



675 




6k|;<.|*- 



-5 - 

Fig. 381. 



NEW YORK CENTRAL & HUDSON RIVER R. R. STANDARD RAIL 

SECTION. 

Weight 80 pounds per yard. 

Type P. H. Dudley section for rails, having fillets of large radius and the 

narrowest part of the web is above the center line. 



676 



APPENDIX J. 




Fig. 382. 

PHILADELPHIA & READING R. R. RAIL SECTION. 

79 pounds per yard. 
Type of R. H. Sayre section for rails, with top corners of large radius 
sides sloping outward from the top. 



and 



APPEJSDIX /. 



677 



I 




Fig. 383. 



ARGENTINE GREAT WESTERN R'Y, SOUTH AMERICA 
STANDARD SECTION. 

70 pounds per yard. 
Tyi)e of Mr. Sandberg's section for rails, having wide heads with large corners. 



678 



APPENDIX J. 




Fig. 384. 

MEXICAN RAILWAY CO., LIMITED, STANDARD RAIL SECTION. 
82 pounds per yard. 



APPENDIX J. 



679 




' Fig. 385. 



EAST INDIA RAILWAY CO., INDIA, STANDARD RAIL SECTION. 

75 pounds per yard. 

Standard joint. 2 bars, 19 inches long, 34.0 lbs. 4 bolts, 1 in. x 4M in. long, 

6.5 lbs. 



680 



AFP EN BIX J. 



TABLE No. 1. 

Tons per mile and feet of track per ton of rails of different 
weight per yard: 



Pounds per 


Gross Tons per 


Feet of Track 


Pounds p.er 


Gross Tons per 


Feet of Track 


Yard. 


Mile. 


PER Ton of 
Rails. 


Yard. 


Mile. 


PER Ton of 
Rails. 


48 


75-43 


70.00 


84 


132.00 


40.00 


49 


77.00 


68.57 


85 


133.57 


39.53 


50 


78.57 


67.20 


86 


135.14 


39.07 


51 


80.14 


65.88 


87 


136.71 


38.62 


52 


81.71 


64,62 


88 


138.29 


38.18 


53 


83.29 


63.40 


89 


139.^ 


37.75 


54 


84.86 


62.22 


90 


141.43 


37.33 


55 


86.43 


61.09 


91 


143.00 


36.92 


56 


88.00 


60.00 


92 


144.57 


36.52 


57 


89.57 


58.95 


93 


146.14 


36.13 


58 


91.14 


57.93 


94 


147.71 


35.75 


59 


92.71 


56.95 


95 


149.29 


35.37 


60 


94.-29 


56.00 


96 


150.86 


35.00 


61 


95.86 


55.08 


97 


152.43 


34.64 


62 


97.43 


54.19 


98 


154.00 


34.29 


!^ 


99.00 


53.33 


99 


155.57 


33.94 


64 


ICO. 57 


52.50 


100 


157.14 


33.60 


65 


102.14 


51.69 


lOI 


158.71 


33.27 


66 


103.71 


50.91 


102 


160.29 


32.94 


67 


105.29 


50.15 


103 


161.86 


32.62 


68 


106.86 


49.41 


104 


163.43 


32.31 


69 


108.43 


48.70 


t05 


165,00 


32.00 


70 


1 10.00 


48.00 


106 


166.57 


31.70 


71 


i'i.57 


47.32 


107 


168.14 


31.40 ' 


72 


113-14 


46.67 


108 


169.71 


31.11 


73 


114.71 


46.03 


109 


171.29 


30.83 


74 


116.29 


.45.41 


no 


172.86 


30.54 


75 


117.86 


44.80 


III 


174.43 


30.27 


76 


i 19.43 


44.21 


112 


176.00 


30.00 


77 


121.00 


43.64 


"3 


177.57 


29.73 


78 


J22,57 


4308 


114 


179.14 


29.47 


79 


124.14 


42.53 


"5 


180.71 


29.22 


80 


125.71 


42.00 


116 


182.29 


28.97 


81 


127.29 


41.48 


U7 


183.86 


28.72. 


82 


128.86 


40.98 


X18 


185.43 


28.47 


83 


130.43 


40.48 


119 


187.00 


28.24 








120 


188.57 


28.00 



TABLE No. 2. 
Splice bars and bolts for one mile of track. 



Length 


Number of 


Number of Bolts Required. 


Number of 


of Rail, 
Feet. 


Splice Bars 
Required. 




Rails or Com- 
plete Joints. 


4-Hole Splice. 


6-Hole Splice. 


24 


880 


1,760 


2640 


440 


25 


844 


1,688 


2532 


422 


26 


812 


1,624 


2436 


406 


27 


782 


1,564 


2846 


391 


28 


754 


1,508 


2262 


377 


30 


704 


1,408 


2112 


352 


33 


640 


1,280 


1920 


320 



APPENDIX J, 



681 



TABLE No. 3. 
Number of fastenings required to the ton of rails. 



Weight 

of Rail 

per yard. 


24-foot 


25-foot 


26-foot 


27-foot 


28-foot 


30-foot 


33-foot 


Rail. 


Rail. 


Rail. 


Rail. 


Rail. 


Rail. 


Rail. 


Pounds. 


Joints. 


Joints. 


Joints 


Joints. 


Joints. 


Joints. 


Joints. 


12 


23.33 


22.40 


21.53 


20.74 


20.00 


18.66 


16.96 


16 


17.50 


16.80 


16.15 


15.55 


15.00 


14.00 


12.72 


20 


H.OO 


13.55 


12.92 


12.44 


12.00 


11.20 


10.18 


25 


11.20 


10.74 


10.32 


9.95 


9.68 


8.96 


8.14 


30 


9.83 


8.94 


8.60 


8.29 


8.00 


7.46 


6.78 


35 


8.00 


7.68 


7.38 


7.11 


6.86 


6.40 


5.81 


40 


7.00 


6.71 


6.45 


6. -22 


5.99 


5.60 


5.09 


45 


6.22 


5.96 


5.74 


5.52 


5.33 


4.97 


4.52 


50 


5.60 


5.37 


5.16 


4.97 


4.79 


4.48 


4.07 


55 


5.09 


4.88 


4.69 


4.52 


4.36 


4.07 


3.70 


56 


5.00 


4.79 


4.61 


4.44 


4.28 


4.00 


3.63 


60 


4.66 


4.47 


4.30 


4.14 


4.00 


3.73 


3.39 


62 


4.51 


4.33 


4.16 


4.01 


3.86 


3.61 


3.28 


64 


4.37 


4.19 


4 03 


3.88 


3.74 


3.50 


3.17 


65 


4. .30 


4.13 


3.97 


3.82 


3.69 


3.44 


3.13 


67 


4.17 


4.00 


3.85 


3.71 


3.58 


3.34 


3.03 


70 












3.20 


2.90 


75 












2.98 


2.71 


80 












2.80 


2.54 


85 












2.63 


2.39 


90 












2.48 


2.26 


95 












2.35 


2.14 


100 












2.24 


2.03 



TABLE No. 4. 
Spikes required per mile of track. 



Size Measured 


Average Number 
Per Keg of 
200 pounds. 


Ties Two Feet Be- 
tween Centre and 


RAIL USED. 


Under Head. 


Four Spikes per Tie, 
Makes per Mile. 


Weight per yard. 


Inches. 




Pounds. Kegs. 




f>Vi X ^% 


375 


5632 = 28.16 


45 to iro 


5 Xi«5 


400 


5280 = 26.4 


40 to 56 


5 Xl/2 


450 


4692 = 23.46 


40 


W2^V^ 


530 


3984 = 19.92 


35 


4 xH 


600 


3520 = 17.60 


30 


4ya X /h 


680 


3104 = 15.52 


25 


4 x/s 


720 


2932 -= 14.66 


25 


31/4 X /s 


900 


2356 = 11.73 


20 


2^2 x% 


1342 


1572 = 7.86 


16 


2^/^ X ^ 


1800 


1172 =, 5.86 


12 



682 



APPENDIX J. 



TABLE No. 5. 
Giving the weight of standard track bolts; pounds per 1,000 
bolts with square nuts. 



Diam. 


2 


2K 


2% 


2% 


3 


SH 


3H 


8% 


4 


4H 


4!/2 


43^ 


5 


Diam 


Wt.of 

1000 

Nuts 


inches 


in. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


m. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


m. 


in. 


in. 


inches 


H 


260 


274 


288 


302 


316 330 


344 


358 


372 


386 


400 


414 


428 


H 


112 


1% 


352 


370 


388 


406 


424 442 


460 


478 


496 


514 


532 


550 


568 


^F 


146 


% 


454 


476 


498 


520 


542 564 


586 


608 


630 


652 


674 


696 


718 


% 


218 


% 


626 


658 


690 


722 


754 786 


818 


850 


882 


914 


946 


978 


1010 


% 


245 


% 


858 


901 


944 


98 < 


1030 1073 1116 


1159 


1202 


1245 


1288 


1331 


1374 


% 


374 


1 


1155 1210 


1265 1320 


1375 1430 1485 


1540 


1595 


1650 


1705 


1760; 18 15 


1 


525 


\% 


1595 1666' 1737 1808 


1879 1950 2021 


2092 


2163 


2234 


2305 


2876 2447 


1^8 


747 



Pounds per 1,000 


bolts 


with hexagon 


nuts. 




































Wt.of 


Diam. 


2 


2H 


2% 


2% 


3 


^V, 


3H 


33/i 4 


Wa 


4H, 


m 


5 


Diam. 


1000 


inches 


in. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


in.! in. 


m. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


inches 


Nuts. 


"•A 


253 


267 


281 


295 


309 


32:^ 


337 


351 


365 


379 


393 


407 


421 


V^ 


93 


1% 


32V 


345 


363 


381 


399 


417 


435 


453 


471 


489 


507 


525 


543 




122 


% 


436 


458 


480 


502 


524 


546 


568 


590 


612 


634 


656 


678 


700 


% 


182 


% 


597 


629 


661 


693 


725 


757 


789 


821 


8n3 


885 


917 


949 


981 


Yat 


216 


% 


822 


865 


908 


95 i 


994 


1037 


1080 


1123 116611209 


1252 


1295 


1338 


% 


316 


1 


1087 


1132 


1187 


12'i2;i297 


1352 


1407 


1462 151711572 


1627 


1682 


1737 


1 


462 


Ws 


1513 


1584 


1655 1726| 1797 


1868 


1939 


2010 2081. 2152|2223 


2294 


2365 


1^8 


685 



TABLE No. 6. 
Average number of track bolts in a keg of 200 pounds. 



Size of Bolt. 


Square Nut. 


Hexagon Nut. 


VTeight of Rail. 


IMx^s 






8 pounds. 


19£xi/2 


940 




12 and 16 pounds. 


2 Xl/2 


793 




20 pounds. 


2H^V^ 


763 




25 pounds. 


2% X % , 


733 




25 pounds. 


2Y2 X % 


390 


425 


30 pounds. 


2^ X % 


379 


410 


35 pounds. 


3 X % 


366 


395 


40 and 46 pounds. 


3 xM 


250 


270] 






31^ xM 


243 


261 






3!^xM 


236 


253 






3^xM 


229 


244 






4 x% 

S%x% 


222 

170 


236 
180 


} 


50 pounds and upwards c 


8%x% 


165 


175 






4 x% 


161 


170 






4^x % 


157 


165 






4^2 X % 


153 


160 







APPENDIX J. 



683 



TABLE No. 7. 
Showing amount of expansion of steel rails and thickness 
of shim required for a 30-foot rail, as given by Mr. W. C. 
Downing, Engineer of Maintenance of Way of the Vandalia 
Line. 





VARIATIONS. 




Temperature 




Thickness of Ex- 


Degree 






pansion Shim 


Fahrenheit 


In Decimals of 


In Fractions of 


in Inches. 




an inch. 


an inch. 




— 30 


.3744 


24-64 


6-16 


— 20 


.3510 


23-64 


6-16 


— 10 


.3276 


21-64 


6-16 





.3042 


19-64 


5-16 


10 


.2808 


18-64 


5-18 


20 


.2574 


16-64 


4-16 


30 


.2340 


15-64 


4-16 


40 


.2100 


14-64 


4-16 


50 


.1872 


12-64 


3 16 


60 


.1638 


10-64 


3-16 


70 


.1404 


9-64 


3-16 


80 


.1170 


7-64 


2-16 


90 


.0936 


6-64 


2-16 


100 


.0702 


5-64 


1-16 


110 


.0^68 


3-64 


1-16 


120 


.0234 


1-64 


1-16 


1^0 


.0000 " 





The rails are supposed to be in contact at a temperature of 130 
degrees Fahrenheit. 



684 



APPENDIX J. 



TABLE No. 8. 
Capacity of duplex and single acting pumps. 



Size of 1*1111 


I p. 


3 


t 




Dinmeter o 
Pipes. 


f 
























c.- 


2l 






r:% 


5s 


i 


^ 


i 




S 

J 




i 

5 


r^ 


H^ 


^ 


•/ "* 


vT^ 


■-« c; 


«v 


Of 


" — 




^ 








a)-t- 














o 








ti t 


S "" 


Si: 


cc 


_c'^ 


"i? — 


S ^ ,A 


5 


2 




IS 


.tc 




o^ 


•- ^ 








5 ^ 


-zB. «- 






o 




|3 




c y 


— (2 


5^- 


J 


5o 


^^ 


6:5§i 


^ 


'^ 


oL 


5 


i? 




A^ 


3 


2>^ 


4 


.06 


100 to 200 


12to 24 ^ 


% 


vx 


1 


210 


29Kxll>^ 


5^ 


4X 


5 


.31 


100 to 150 


62 to 93 1 


IX 


3 


2 


570 


39>^xl6 


G 


5 


6 


.51 


100 to 150 


102 to 153 


1 


1>^ 


4 


3 


840 


45 


xl7 


6 


r,^ 


C 


.07 


100 to 150 


134 to 201 


1 


1>^ 


4 


3 


1240 


49 


xl7 


7 


c 


10 


1.22 


75 to 150 


183 to 366 


IK 


2 


5 


4 


1790 


72 


x23 


8 


7 


12 


2.00 


75 to 125 


300 to 500 


VA 


2 


6 


5 


2780 


79 


x28 


8 


8 


12 


2.61 


75 to 125 


391 to 652 


Wz 


2 


6 


5 


3720 


82 


x35 


8 


10 


12 


4.08 


75 to 125 


612 to 1020 iy2 


2 


8 


7 


6200 


90 


x43 


8 


10 


15 


5.10 


60 to 100 


612 to 1020 1;^ 


2 


8 


7 


6300 


96 


x43 


10 


8 


12 


2.61 


75 to 125 


391 to 652 2 


2^ 


6 


5 


3940 


82 


x35 


10 


10 


12 


4. OS 


75 to 125 


612 to 1020 2 


^Yz 


8 


7 


6300 


90 


x43 


10 


10 


15 


5.10 


60 to 100 


61 2 to 1020 2 


2K 


8 


7 


6400 


96 


x43 


10 


12 


12 


5.87 


75 to 125 


880 to 1468 2 


2>^ 


10 


8 


10350 


90 


x56 


10 


12 


15 


7.34 


60 to 100 


880 to 1468 2 


3>2 


10 


8 


10800 


96 


x56 


12 


10 


12 


4.08 


75 to 125 


612 to 1020 2>^ 


3 


8 


7 


6600 


91 


x43 


12 


10 


15 


5.10 


60 to 100 


612 to 1020 2>^ 


3 


8 


7 


6800 


96 


x43 


12 


12 


12 


5.87 


75 to 125 


880 to 1468 2y2 


3 


10 


8 


10408 


90 


x56 


12 


12 


15 


7.34 


60 to 100 


880tol468'2^ 


3 


10 


8 


10990 


97 


xnO 


12 


14 


15 


9.99 


60 to 100 


1200 to 2000 2>^ 


3 


12 


10 


15930 


97 


x56 


12 


14 


18 


12.00 


50 to 85 


1200 to 2039 2>^ 


3 


12 


10 


16550122 


x5(> 


12 


15 


18 


13/77 


50 to 85 


1377 to 2340 


2K 


3 


12 


10 


16550 


126 


x57 



The gallons delivered by a single acting pump are one-half the 
amount given in the table, 



APPENDIX J. 



685 



TABLE No. 9. 



Switch Tibs. 
Gauge, 4 feet, 8J4 inches. 



Number of Switch Ties for Split Switch- 
es, Single Throw, for Frogs of 
Following Numbers. 



Length. 
Feet. In. 



8 
8 
8 
9 
9 
9 
9 
10 
10 
10 
10 
11 
11 
11 
12 
12 
13 
13 
13 
14 
14 
15 
15 



Size. 
Feet. In. 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 



Head Blocks, 

16 feet, in. : 10 in. x 12 in. 

Common Switch Stand. 

Head Block, 
16 feet, in.; lOin.x 12 in. 



4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


3 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


4 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


2 


2 


2 


2 


4 


4 


4 


1 


2 


3 


2 


3 


3 


3 


1 




2 


2 


2 


3 


2 


1 




1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


1 




2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


1 




1 


2 


2 


2 


2 
2 


1 
1 




2 


2 


2 


2 


2 
2 






2 


2 


2 


3 


2 


1 

1 




2 


2 


3 


3 


2 


1 




1 


2 


2 


2 


3 


1 




2 


2 


2 


3 


2 


1 
1 




2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


1 
1 




2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


1 




1 


2 


2 


2 


3 


1 




2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


1 




1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


1 




2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


1 




1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 




1 


1 


1 


1 


1 



When automatic switch stands are used omit the first switch tie 
and use two head blocks. 

When pony switch stands are used the head block should be 13 
feet 6 inches long. 



686 



APPENDIX J. 



TABLE No. 10. 



Switch Ties. 
Gauge, 4 feet, 8^ inches. 



Number of Switch Ties for Split Switch- 
es, Three Throw, for Frogs of 
Following Numbers. 



Length. 


Size. 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


Feet. In. 


Feet. In. 














8 3 


7 10 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


8 6 


7 10 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


9 


7 10 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


9 6 


7 10 


2 


2 


4 


4 


4 


4 


10 


7 10 


3 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


10 • 6 


7 10 


2 


2 


2 


3 


2 


3 


11 


7 10 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


8 


11 fl 


7 10 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


12 


7 10 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


12 6 


7 10 










2 


2 


13 


7 10 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


13 6 


7 10 










2 


2 


14 


7 10 


2 


2 


2 


3 


2 


2 


15 


7 10 


2 


2 


3 


3 


2 


3 


16 


7 10 


1 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


17 


7 10 


2 


2 


2 


3 


2 


3 


18 


7 10 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


19 


7 10 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


20 


7 10 


1 


2 


2 


2 


3 


2 


21 


7 10 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


22 


7 10 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


23 


7 10 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


2 


24 


7 10 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


Head Blocks. 














16 feet, inches— 10 in. x 12 in. 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 



When automatic switch stands are used omit the first switch tie 
and use. two head blocks. 

When pony switch stands are used, the head block should be 
13 feet 6 inches long. 



APPENDIX J. 



687 



TABLE No. 11. 

Data for Stub Switches, 4 feet,8i inch Gauge, throw-off Switch 
Rail, 5 inches. 





d 


c 


^3 




1 




1. 


%2 


J 


i 

. 


2 


< 

to 
2 


3 


00 

3 


J2 




2 = 




i-s 

|2 




it* 


b. 


Co 


Di 


CO 


H 


S 


^50 


<o 


H 

Feet. 






Feet. 


Feet, 


'Feet. 


Feet. 






A 


140 1ft' 


380 54' 


150.2^ 


11.5 


26.4 


37.9 


2.8 


200 21' 


15.1 


5 


110 26- 


24034' 


235.0« 


14.1 


33.2 


47.3 


3.5 


160 14' 


19.2 


6 


^32^ 


170 (T 


338.7 


16.8 


39.8 


56.6 


4.2 


13035' 


23.0 


7 


80 10- 


120 26' 


461.g 


19.6 


46.5- 


66.1 


4.9 


1103r 


26.9 


8 


70IO' 


9033* 


6()0.0 


22.3 


53.2 


75.5 


5.7 


100 8' 


30.9 


9 


60 22* 


70 31' 


761.6 


25.1 


59.7 


84.8 


6.4 


90 y 


34.7 


10 


5044' 


60 0- 


938.6 


27.8 


66.3 


94.1 


7.1 


go 8' 


38.4 


11 


5012- 


50 r 


1141.8 


308 


73.0 


103.8 


7.8 


7022' 


42.4 


12 


.4047' 


r-is* 


1358.2 


83.8 


79.6 


113.2 


8.5 


00 44' 


46.4 



TABLE No. 12. 

Data for Stub Switches, 3 feet, inch Gauge, throw-off Switc h 
Rail, 4 fnches. 





i 


i 

to 
2 


Oc5 


1 


1 




1. 

1'^ 




4 

?2 




ui 


& 





CO 


H 


» 


z<o 


<^ 


H 








Feet. 


Feet 


Feet. 


Feet. 






Feet. 


4 


140 16' 


63^ 8* 


9G.0 


8.1 


16.1 


24.2 


2.8 


200 21' 


9.0 


5 


110 26' 


390 4' 


150.0 


10.1 


20.1 


S0.2 


S.5 


lt>oi4' 


11.3 


6 


9032- 


26048' 


215.7 


12.0 


24.1 


36.1 


4.2 


13035' 


13.5 


7 


80 lO' 


19034' 


294.3 


14.0 


28.1 


42.1 


4.9 


110 37' 


15.8 


8 


7010* 


150 0* 


382.5 


16.2 


31.8 


48.0 


5.7 


100 8' 


17.9 


9 


60 22- 


IPSO* 


484.9 


17.4 


36.1 


54.0 


6.4 


90 r 


20.2 


10 


5044' 


9035' 


598.5 


19.9 


40.1 


60.0 


7.1 


8<? 8* 


22.5 


11 


fioiir 


7054' 


722.9 


21.9 


44.1 


66.0 


7.8 


70 22* 


24.0 


12 


4047' 


6040' 


869.7 


23.9 


48,0 


71.9 


S^ 


0944' 


26.9 



688 



APPENDIX /, 



TABLE No. 13. 
Bill of switch ties for standard gauge stub switches. 









m 




w 




00 




CO 




09 






be 


<£ 


ta 


a? 


bb 


o 


t» 


0) 


tic 


a> 






O 


o 


o 


o 


o 




o 


u 




9 






u 


2 


u 


dj 


M 




u 


o 




(0 


Size. 


Length. 


6 


s 

o 


6 


s 

o 


00 

d 




d 


s 

O 


i 








IZ 


1 


^ 


6 


"A 


d 


^ 


i 


d 


10x12 


16 feet. 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


7x 9 


9 feet. 


2 


2 


3 


4 


5 


7x 9 


9 feet, 6 inches. 


2 


3 


3 


3 


4 


7x 9 


10 feet. 


2 


3 


3 


8 


3 


7x 9 


10 feet, 6 inches. 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


7x 9 


11 feet. 


2 


2 


3 


3 


8 


7x 9 


11 feet, Cinches. 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


7x 9 


12 feet. 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


7x 9 


12 feet, 6 inches. 


1 


4 


2 


2 


3 


7x10 


13 feet. 


2 


3 


2 


2 


2 


7x10 


13 feet, 6 inches. 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


7x10 


14 feet. 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


7x 9 


14 feet, 6 inches. 


1 


1 


2 


2 


2 


7x 9 


15 feet. 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


7x 9 


15 feet, 6 inches. 


1 


1 


2 


2 


2 


7x 9 


16 feet. 


1 


2 


1 


2 


2 



TABLE No. 14. 

Bill of switch ties for a narrow (three foot) gauge single 

tlirow stub switch, using a number 10 frog. 

6 pieces, 6 inches x 8 inches, 8 feet long. 
6 *' " •' 9 

6 •• - ♦' 10 

4 *' " '* 12 

Cross ties in main track can be 6 in- 
ches X 7 inches, 6 feet long. 



APPENDIX J. 



689 



TABLE No. 15. 

Table giving distance D Fig. 245 being the distance be- 
tween the actual point of the frogs of a cross-over on 4-feet 
8% -inch gauge. 





TRACK CENTERS. "C." 


No. of 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. III. 


Ft. In. 


Frog. 


11 6 


12 


12 6 


13 


13 6 


14 


14 6 


15 


15 e 


16 


6 


11 6^8 


14 5% 


17 5^8 


20 5% 


23 5% 


26 4% 


29 4% 


32 4% 


35 45^ 


38 3^8 


7 


13 7K 


17 \% 


20 6^ 


24 Q\ 


27 6M 


31 0% 


34 %% 


38 


41 53^ 


44 11J^ 


8 


15 7J^ 


19 7 


23 65i 


27 6^ 


31 6^ 


35 6 


39 53/^ 


43 5J^ 


47 5J^ 


51 5 


W. 


16 8 


20 1051i 


25 m 


29 4% 


33 7IX 


37 10 


42 0% 


46 3% 


50 654 


54 9 


d 


17 8 


22 W 


26 7^ 


31 1%: 


35 7 


40 OK 


44 6H 


49 OK 


53 6 


57 UK 


10 


19 85^ 


24 7^8 


29 7^ 


34 7% 


39 7H 


44 6% 


49 %% 


54 6^8 


59 6K 


64 h% 


11 


21 9H 


27 3 


32 9 


38 3 


43 8^8 


49 2^ 


54 8% 


60 2^ 


65 8^8 


71 2J^ 



TABLE No. 16. 
Widening the gauge of standard gauge track on curves as 
recommended by the Roadmasters* Association in 1898. 



Amount to 

Widen 
the Gauge, 
degree inches 



Degree of 
Curve. 



.0 
.0 
.0 

.0 
.0 

■ % 



Amount to 

Widen 
the Gauge. 
10 degrees % inches 



Degree of 
Curve. 



11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 



% 



40 Vol. 13 



690 



APPENDIX J. 



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i^ 



APPENDIX /. 



691 



TABLE No. 18. 
Table of middle ordinates.* 



Degree 




LENGTH OF RAILS. 


Radius. 




of Curve 


30 


28 


26 


24 


22 


20 


18 


16 


14 


12 


10 




Feet. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In 


In. 


In 


In. 


In. 


In. 


-In 


In. 




11460 


i 


A 


^4- 


A 


A 


-ii 


A 


A 


A 


A 




1. 


5730 


if 


-h 


A 


i 


/4- 


A 


^ 


<«- 


A 


A 


A 


1.5 


3820 


H 


-A- 


4 


A 


A 


A 


L 
8 


A 


<' 


A 


A 


2. 


2865 


-If 


sf 


fi 


if 


4 


H 


¥ 


i 


A 


A 


A 


2.5 


2292 


II 


(8^ 

16 4 


iV 


1 


2± 
64 


Vk 




ii 


i 


A 


A 


3. 


1910 




1! 


il 


nT 




f 


ii 

64 


13 
64 


A 


A 


A 


3.5 


1637 


f 2 


•64 


8 


|3 


1^6" 




11 
64 


lA 

64 


A 


i 


A 


4. 


1433 


64 


6 4' 


M 


32 


i 


4 


H 


# 


A 


# 


A 


4.5 


1274 


\-h 


II 


lii 

1 6 


M 


A 


H 


^t 


A 


«t 


f 


i 


6. 


1146 


lA 


1-3^2 


64 


1 


5. 

8 


it 


n 


H 


ii 


ii 


A 


5.5 


1042 


Iff 


U 


u 


li 


if 


64 


a 


1 


A 


A 


A 


6. 


955.4 




lf2- 


l-.k 


II 


H 


f 


i 


if 


A 


if 




6.5 


882 


13 2" 


iH 


la 


If 


64 


u 


^t 


ff 


21 


1^ 


7. 


819 


i!l- 


l-iV 


Ik 


lA 


fi 


H 


ii 


if 


64 


H 


% 


7.5 


764.5 


if 


m 


111 


U 


ti 


II 


a 


i 


If 


^2 


iV 


8. 


716.8 


U 


IH 


iii 


i-a 


1-0-V 




ti 




i-i 


^T 


ii 


8.5 


674.6! 


2 


i-H 


itf 


m 


1-A- 


tj 4 


§1 


6 4 


A 


21 


i 


9. 


637.3 


2^ 


Uf 


Ul 


m 


lA- 


1 6 


1 


39 
64 


n 


ii 


9.5 


603.8 


2^1 


ifi 


m 


m 


1/2- 


1 


li 


Ii 


h 


A 


X 


10. 


573.7 


23^1 


2h 


Iff 


u 


m 


1-^4- 


5 p 
64 


U 


4 


it 


«^ 


11. 


524.7 


n\ 


2k 


ifi 


la 


IM 


lA 


If 


f 


A 


'!■% 


A 


12. 


478.3 


2.\i 


m 


2-^4 


ifi 


i¥k 


IH 


1^4- 


If 


a 


■ M 


1^ 


13. 


441.7 


♦^6 4 


m 


23% 


r^i 


ifi 


le- 


lA 


!f 


fi 


A 


H 


14. 


410.3 


3-,% 


211 


'^R 4 


2A- 


Iff 


ni 


lA 


H 




if 


ft 


15. 


383.1 


3if 


36^ 


o4.3 

^6 4 


2i 


111 


m 


la 


l-eV 


fi 


¥ 


ff 


16. 


359.3 


3* 


sA 


■2|il 


2^ 


2A- 


ifl 


Iff 


1-3^2- 


1^ 


f 


i^ 


17. 


338.3 


4 


3ii 


3A- 


2A 


2A 




lA 


lA 


1^ 


I2 


A 


18. 


319.6 


4-3^2 


3H 


3-1% 


2|-f 


2A 


1? 


m 


lif 


■-{ 


fi 


If 


19. 


302.9 


41! 


3n 


064 


2lf 


2H 


IH 


If 


lif 


%' 


fi 




20. 


287.9 


4if 


4.A 


q35. 
06 4 


3 


2'^f 


2A 


m 


ll 


lA 


a 



Ordinates at quarters equal three-fourths of the middle ordinates. 

♦The middle ordinate is the perpendicular distance from a chord 
or line stretched from end to end of the rail to the gauge side of the 
rail at the center of the rail. 

The ordinate at the quarter point is the perpendicular distance from 
a chord or line stretched from end to end of the rail to the gauge 
side of the rail at the quarter point of the rail. 



692 



APPENDIX J. 



TABLE No. 19. 
Giving the square feet of bearing surface ties eight feet 
long and of different width have on the ballast or roadbed. 



NUMBER OF 


LENGTH OF TIE EIGHT FEET. 


TIES TO A 


Square feet of surface for ties of the following width. 


30-FOOT RAIL. 


7 inches. 


8 inches. 


9 inches. 


10 inches. 


14 
15 
16 
17 

18 


65.24 
69.90 
71.56 
79.22 
83.88 


74.62 
79.95 
85.28 
90.61 
95.94 


84.00 
90.00 
9600 
102.00 
108.00 


93.24 

99.90 

106.56 

113 22 

119.88 



APPENDIX K. 

BEING A TABLE SETTING FORTH MODERN AUTHORI- 
TIES ON THE LOCATION, CONSTRUCTION, TRACK 
AND MAINTENANCE OF RAILWAYS.* 



NAME OF AUTHOR. 



Baker, I. O 

Berg, W. G 

Burr, W. H 

Butts, E 

Boiler, A. P 

Boulton, S. B 

Bowser, E. A 

Crandall, C. L 

Crehore, J. D 

Crehore, Wm. W 

Cooper, Theo 

Cross. C. S 

Du Bois, A. J 

Davis, J. W 

Department of Agriculture. 

Dillenbeck, C 

Drinker, H.S 

Elliott, W. H 

Foster, W. C 

Gieseler, E. A 

Greene, C. E.... 

Godwin, H. C 

Hermann, E. A 

Howard, C. R 

Howe, M. A 

Hudson, J. R 

Johnson, J. B 



SUBJECTS TREATED OF 






10 













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> S 








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o 


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p 


be 
o 


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ca 






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rfl 


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Cfl 


03 


o 


tJ 


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cri 


P 


P 


J 


Eh 


o* 


O 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


* 


* 


* 










* 






* 


* 


* 




* 








* 


* 

* 
* 


* 

* 
* 
* 

* 
* 


* 


* 


* 











12 



14 



♦The titles of the author's works with a brief description of the 
same, and the price, are appended to this volume. The World Rail- 
way Publishing Co., Chicago, 111., is prepared to mail any of these 
books upon receipt of the price. 

(693) 



"694 



APPENDIX E. 



NAME OF AUTHOR., 



JohnsoD, Bryan «& Turneaure, 

Kinde\an. J 

Merriman & Brooks 

Merriman & Jacoby 

Merriman, M 

Merrill, Wm. E 

Morison, G._S , 

Nagle, J.C" 

Osborn 

Paine, G.H , 

Patton, W. M 

Plympton, G. W 

Paul, H 

Reed, H. A 

Searles, Wm. H 

Shunk, W. F , 

Simms, W. F 

Simms, F. W 

Smith & McMillan 

Spalding, F. P 

Torrey, A 

Tratmrin,E. E.R 

Trau twine, J. C 

Wellington, A. M 

Whipple, S ,... 

Wright, C. H 

Winslow, A 

Henck, J. B . . . , 



SUBJECTS TREATED OF 



1 2 



P J 



5 6 



5 6 






8 J9 



10 



10 



12 



13 14 



13 



14 



« 



DETAILED DESCRIPTIONS OF WORKS OF AUTHORS RE- 
FERRED TO IN APPENDIX K.*^ 

BAKER — Engineers' Surveying Instruments. 

By Ira O. Baker. Each instrument is considered sep- 
arately, the best form of construction is discussed, the 



♦The World Railway Publishing Company, Chicago, 111., is prepared 
to mail any book mentioned herein, upon receipt of the price. 



APPENDIX K. 695 

sources of error in use are pointed out, data are given 
as to the degree of precision attained in actual practice, 
and suggestions are made as to the most accurate, rapid, 
and convenient methods of using it. Second edition, re- 
vised and greatly enlarged. Bound in cloth, 400 pages, 
5x71/^ inches, 86 illustrations, copious index, 12mo, 
cloth $3.00 

Chapters : Chain and Tape, Tripod and Leveling Screws, Mag- 
netic Compass, Solar Compass, Telescope, Vernier, Transit, Solar 
Transit, Plane Table, Stadia and Gradienter, Spirit Level, An,- 
eroid and Mercurial Barometers. 

"A most excellent work." — Engineering News. 

BAKER— A Treatise on Masonry Construction. 

Containing materials and method of testing strength, etc., 
Combinations of Materials — Composition, etc.; Founda- 
tions — Testing the bearing power of soils, etc.; Masonry 
Structure — Stability against sliding, overturning, crush- 
ing, etc., etc., etc. Complete in one volume of about 500 
pages, with 125 illustrations and eight or ten folding 
plates. By Ira O. Baker, C.E. Ninth edition, 8vo, 
cloth $5.00 

"If you wish the best book ever published in the English lan- 
guage on Masonry Construction, turn with confidence to this 
treatise." — Building. 

"We should be doing injustice to both author and publieher 
did we not declare at once our conviction that this is the most 
valuable and complete Treatise on Masonry as yet published, at 
least in English." — Engineering Neivs. 

BAKER. — D. Van Nostrand's Science Series. 

No. 91. Leveling: Barometric, Trigonometric, and Spirit. 
By Prof. I. O. Baker. 18mo, board 50c 

BERG. — Buildings and Structures of American Railroads. 
A reference book for railroad managers, superintendents, 
master mechanics, engineers, architects and students. By 
Walter G. Berg, C.E., principal assistant engineer Lehigh 
Valley railroad. 534 pages, 700 illustrations, 4to 
cloth $7.50 

Preface. 

Chap. I. Watchman's Shanties. XI. Sand Houses. 

II. Section Tool Houses. XII. Oil Storage Houses. 

III. Section Houses. XIII. Oil Mixing Houses. 

IV. Dwelling Houses for Employes. XIV. Water Stations. 

V. Sleeping Quarters. Reading XV. Coaling Stations for Loco- 
Rooms and Club Houses for motives. 
Employes. XVI. Engine Houses. 
VI. Snow Sheds and Protection XVII. Freight Houses. 

Sheds for Mountain Slides. XVIII Platforms, Platform Sheds 
VII. Signal Towers. and Shelters. 

VIII. Car Sheds and Car Cleaning XIX. Combination Depots. 
Yards. XX. Flag Depot«. 

IX. Ash Pits, XXL Local Passenger Depots. 

X. Ice Houses. XXII. Terminal Passenger Depots. 

Appendix. 



696 APPENDIX K. 

BURR. — A Course on the Stresses in Bridges and Roof 
Trusses, Arched Ribs, and Suspension Bridges. 
Prepared for the department of civil engineering at the 
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. By Prof. W. H. Burr, 
Ninth edition, revised. With appendix on cantilevers. 
Nearly the entire section of swing bridges has been com- 
pletely rewritten and considerably extended. Plates, 8vo, 
cloth $3.50 

*'No better practical work on Bridge Stresses has yet ap- 
peared." — Mechanical World (London). 

*'The book will be valuable not only to the student of Bridge 
Engineering, but to the Engineer who is already in practice." — 
Journal Rmlway Appliances. 

BUTTS. — The Civil Engineer's Field Book. 

Designed for the use of the locating engineer. Con- 
taining tables of actual tangents and arcs, expressed in 
chords of 600 feet for every minute of intersection, from 
deg. to 90 deg., from Al deg. curve to AlO deg. curve 
inclusive. Also, tables of formulae applicable to railroad 
curves and the location of frogs, together with radii, long 
chords, grades, tangents, natural sines, natural versed 
sines, natural external secants, etc. With explanatory 
problems. By Edward Butts, C.E. Second edition, re- 
vised, 12mo, morocco flaps $2.50 

"The work is a monument of patience on the part of the 
author, and should prove a labor-saving investment to the pur- 
chaser. It is a 'Henck' elaborated, and this is quite recom- 
mendation enough — to the practicing engineer." — Engineering 
News. 

BOLLER. — The Thames River Bridge. 

A report to the general manager of the New York, Prov- 
idence & Boston railroad upon the construction of the 
Thames River bridge and approaches at New London, 
Conn. By Alfred P. Boiler, chief engineer. Illustrated 
with numerous folding plates and a handsome heliotype 
of the bridge. Limited edition, 4to, paper $5.00 

BOULTON. — D. Van Nostrand's Science Series. 

No. 82. The Preservation of Timber by the Use of Anti- 
septics. By Samuel Bagster Boulton, C. E. 18mo 50c 

BOWSER. — A Treatise on Roofs and Bridges, with Numer- 
ous Exercises. 
By Edward A. Bowser, professor of mathematics and en- 
gineering in Rutgers College. Partial table of contents: 
CHAPTER I. — Roof Trusses : 1. Definitions — 2. The Dead 
Load — 3. The Live Load — 4. The Apex Loads and Reactions — 
5 Relations between External Forces and Internal Stresses— 
6. Methods of Calculation— 7. Lever Arms— Indeterminate 



APPENDIX K. 697 

Cases — 8. Snow Load Stresses — 9. Wind Loads — 10. Complete 
Calculations of a Roof Truss. 

CHAPTER II. — Bridge Trusses with Uniform Loads: 
13. Definitions — 14. Different Forms of Trusses — 15. The Dead 
Load — 16. The Live Load — 17. Shear — Shearing Stress — 
18. Web Stresses due to Dead Loads — 19. Chord Stresses due to 
Dead Loads — 20. Position of Uniform Live Load causing Maxi- 
mum Chord Stresses — 21. Maximum Stresses in the Chords — • 

22. Position of Uniform Live Load causing Maximum Shears — 

23. The Warren Truss — 24. Mains and Counters — 25. The 
Howe Truss — 26. The Pratt Truss — 27. The Warren Truss, 
with Vertical Suspenders — 28. The Double Warren Truss — 
29. The Whipple Truss — 30. The Lattice Truss — 34. The Par- 
abolic Bowstring Truss — 35. The Circular Bowstring Truss — 
36. Snow Load Stresses — 37. Stresses due to Wind Pressure — 
38. The Factor of Safety. 

CHAPTER III. — Bridge Trusses with Unequal Distribution 
OP the Loads : 39. Preliminary Statement — 40. When the Uni- 
form Train Load is preceded by One or More Heavy Excess 
Panel Loads — 41. When One Concentrated Excess Load accom- 
panies a Uniform Train Load — 42. When Two Equal Concen- 
trated Excess Loads accompany a Uniform Train Load — 43. .The 
Baltimore Truss — 44. The Maximum Shears for Uniform Live 
Load — 45. Locomotive Wheel Loads — 46. Position of Wheel 
Loads for Maximum Shear — 47. Position of Wheel Loads for 
Maximum Moment at Joint in Loaded Chord — 48. Position of 
Wheel Loads for Maximum Moment at Joint in Unloaded Chord — 
49. Tabulation of Moments of Wheel Loads. 
CRANDALL. — Railway and Other Earthwork Tables. 

By Prof. Chas. L. Crandall. 8vo, cloth $1.50 

CRANDALL — The Transition Curve. 

By Prof. Chas. L. Crandall, Cornell University. 12mo, 
morocco flap $1.50 

CREHORE. — Mechanics of the Girder. 

A treatise on bridges and roofs, in which the necessary 
and sufficient weight of the structure is calculated, not 
assumed, and the number of panels and height of girder 
that render the bridge weight least for a given span, live 
load and wind pressure are determined. By John D. Cre- 
hore, C.E. Illustrated by over 100 engravings, with 
tables, etc., 8vo, cloth $5.00 

"The Mechanics of the Girder for all the various shapes that 
it assumes before the Engineer, seems to have received here 
thorough and elegant treatment." — Journal of Frcmklin Institute, 

The work is a valuable contribution to science and to the 
literature of bridge building." — W. H. Searles, C. E. 

CREHORE, WM. W. — Tables and Diagrams for Engineers 
and Architects. 

Fifteen tables and nine diagrams for making various cal- 
culations for structural work. List sent on request. 

Price, 25 to 50 cents each; complete set $7.50 

COOPER, THEODORE. — American Railroad Bridges. 

Cloth, 7x91/^ inches; 60 pp., 7 tables and 26 full-page and 
folding plates $2.00 



698 APPENDIX K. 

"Specifications for Iron and Steel Highway Bridges." 

(1890.) Paper, 7x9i^ inches; 23 pp 25c 

"Specifications for Iron and Steel Railroad Bridges." 

(1890.) Paper, 7x91/^ inches; 25 pp 25c 

"Specifications for Steel Highway Bridges." (1896.) Pa- 
per, 7x91/^ inches; 25 pp 25c 

"Specifications for Steel Railroad Bridges." (1896.) Pa- 
per, 7x91/^ inches; 24 pp 25c 

CROSS, C. S. — Engineers' Field Book. 

Cloth, 41/^x7 inches; 166 pp.; illustrated $1.00 

DU BO IS. — The Stresses In Framed Structures. 

The present edition of this well-known work appears in a 
new form, greatly reduced in size and weight, rewritten 
and reset and printed from new plates. It contains the 
latest practice and much new matter never heretofore 
published. Swing bridges, the braced arch and the sus- 
pension system receive an entirely new treatment. New 
chapters are added upon erection, by John Sterling 
Deans, C.E., and high-building construction, by Wm. W. 
Crehore, C.E. Illustrated, with hundreds of cuts and 35 
full-page and 14 folding plates. By Prof. A. Jay Du Bois. 
Tenth edition, 1 vol., 4to, cloth f 10.00 

DAVIS, JOHN W., C.E.— Formulae for the Calculation of 
Railroad Excavation and Embankment and for Finding 
Average Haul. 

Second edition. Octavo, half roan $1.50 

DILLENBECK. — Specifications for Railway Stations. 

By Clark Dillenbeck. Stone and brick passenger sta- 
tions, frame passenger stations, stone and brick freight 
houses, frame freight houses. Each occupying about 32 
pages, 8x14 inches. Price 40 cents each; full set. . . .$1.50 

DRINKER. — Tunneling, Explosive Compounds and Rock 
Drills. 

Giving the details of practical tunnel work, properties of 
modern explosives, principles of blasting and descriptions 
and uses of the various rock drills and compressors, to- 
gether with American and foreign systems of arching, 
and tables showing costs and dimensions of over 2,100 
tunnels from every part of the world. By Henry S. 
Drinker. Profiles, maps and over 1,000 illustrations. 
Third edition, 4to, half bound $25.00 

"We think the comprehensive and thorough nature of the work 
will lead its readers to wonder, not that it has been delayed so 
iong, but rather that it has been completed so soon. For the 



APPENDIX K. 699 

conception and execution of such a work, Mr. Drinker deserves 
our thanks no less than our congratulations." — Engineering 
and Mining Journal. 

Department of Agriculture. 

Forestry Division of United States Department of Agri- 
culture. Bulletin No. 4 (1890): "History and Use of 
Steel Ties." 

Bulletin No. 9 (1894) : "Steel Ties and Preservation of 
Timber." 

ELLIOTT. — Block and Interlocking Signals. 

FOSTER. — Wooden Trestle Bridges. 

According to the present practice on American railroads, 
treating of pile bents, pile drivers, framed bents, floor 
system, bracing trestles of all kinds, iron details, connec- 
tion with embankment and protection against accidents, 
field engineering and erection, preservation and standard 
specifications, bills of material, records and maintenance, 
working drawings. By Wolcott C. Foster, C.E. Second 

edition, revised and enlarged. 4to, cloth $5.00 

"The result is a book the like of which does not exist in any 
language, and which is often called for by practicing engineers 
and also in technical schools." — Rmlroad Gazette. 

GIESELER. — Scales for Turnouts. 

By E. A. Gieseler. Gives graphically the frog numbers, 
length of lead and degree of curvature for turnouts from 
3 deg. to 42 deg. 30 min. Stiff cardboard, pocket size. 
More convenient and certain than tables. Price, with 
full directions for use 25c 

GREENE. — Graphics for Engineers, Architects and Builders. 
A manual for designers and a text-book for scientific 
schools. 

"Trusses and Arches." Analyzed and discussed by 
graphical methods by Chas. E. Greene, professor of 
civil engineering. University of Michigan. In three parts. 

Part I. — "Roof Trusses." Diagrams for steady load, 
snow and wind. New revised edition (1890). 8vo, 
cloth , $1.25 

"This new edition of the first part of Prof. Greene's work on 
Graphical Statics contains some considerable additions, modifica- 
tions and rearrangements of material, tending to further improve 
the work, our favorable opinion of which is sufficiently indicated 
by the fact that the substance of the work is a reprint of a 
series of articles originally contributed to this journal." — En- 
gvneering Neivs. 

Part II. — "Bridge Trusses.'' Single, continuous and 
draw spans; single and multiple systems; straight and 
inclined chords. New revised edition (1891). 8vo, 
cloth $2.50 



700 APPENDIX K, 



Part III. — "Arches in Wood, Iron and Stone." For 
roofs, bridges and wall openings; arched ribs and braced 
arches; stresses from wind and change of temperature. 
Third edition. 8vo, cloth $2.50 

**So eminently simple as to be exactly fitted for working 
Architects and Builders. ' — Prof. Geo. L. Vose. 

"We can recommend Prof. Greene's book as particularly adapted 
to students.' — Engineering News. 

"An excellent little manual which we can decidedly recom- 
mend."— ^/ig'j/ieermg' ( London) . 

GODWIN. — Railroad Engineer's Field Book. 

An explorer's guide, especially adapted to the use of rail- 
road engineers on location and construction and the needs 
of the explorer in making exploratory surveys. By H. C. 
Godwin. Second edition. Morocco flap $2.50 

"I have read with considerable care, and do not hesitate to 
pronounce it far superior to anything now published." — Prof. 
J. B. Johnson, Washington Univ., Dept. of Engineering, St, 
Louis. 

HERMANN. — Steam Shovels and Steam Shovel Work. 

E. A. Hermann, M. Am. Soc. C.E. Cloth, 8vo, 98 figures. 
Price $1.00 

HOWARD. — The Transition Curve Field Book. 

By Conway R. Howard, C.E. Containing full instructions 
for adjusting and locating a curve nearly identical with 
the cubic parabola in transition between any circular rail- 
road curve and tangent. Simplified in application by the 
aid of a general table, and illustrated by rules and ex- 
amples for various problems of location. 12mo, morocco 
flap $1.50 

"The methods indicated in this little work for locating transi- 
tion curves are really simple, decidedly simpler than some others 
that have been put out, and the results good. Therefore it will 
prove a useful book to many engineers." — Engineering News. 

HOWARD, C. R. — Earthwork Mensuration on the Basis of the 
Prismoidal Formulae. 
Containing simple and labor-saving method of obtaining 
prismoidal contents directly from end areas. Illustrated 
by examples and accompanied by plain rules for practical 
uses. Illustrated. 8vo, cloth $1.50 

HOWE.— Retaining Walls for Earth. 

The theory as developed by Prof. Jacob J. Weyrauch, ex- 
panded and supplemented by practical examples, with 
notes on later investigations. By Malverd A. Howe, C.E. 
Third edition, entirely rewritten and enlarged (1896). 
12mo, cloth $1.25 

"We commend this Uttle volume to all Engineers of Con- 
struction." — Industrial Keview. 

"An addition made in the present edition is a chapter on the 
supporting power of earth in the case of foundations ; another 
is a formula for determining the breadth of the base of a re- 
taining wall. The book is a useful one both for students and for 
engineers in practice." — Radlroad and Engineering Journal, 



APPENDIX K. 701 

HUDSON. — Tables for Calculating the Cubic Contents of Ex- 
cavations and Embankments by an improved Method of 
Diagonals and Side Triangles. 
By J. R. Hudson. New edition, with additional tables, 

8vo, cloth $1.00 

"These tables are simple and accurate. The method adopted 
is illustrated by plain diagrams, and the tables are arranged 
for nearly every possible width of roadway and slope and cut- 
tings on fills from zero to 50 feet." — Engineering News. 

HENCK, JOHN B.— Field Book for Railroad Engineers. 
JOHNSON. — The Theory and Practice of Surveying. 

Designed for the use of surveyors and engineers generally, 
but especially for the use of students in engineering. By 
J. B. Johnson, C.E., professor of civil engineering, Wash- 
ington University, etc., etc. Illustrated by upward of 150 
engravings,with folding maps, tables, etc., etc. Eleventh 
edition, revised. 8vo, cloth $4.00 

"On the whole this is the best treatise on Surveying that we 
know of." — Railroad Gazette. 

"Whatever branch of work the Surveyor is in, he will find 
this book valuable and exhaustive." — American Engineer. 

JOHNSON. — Stadia Reduction Diagram. 

Sheet, 22^^x28% inches 50c 

JOHNSON— BRYAN— TURN EAU RE.— Theory and Practice 
In the Designing of Modern Framed Structures. 

Sixth edition, revised and enlarged. 4to, cloth $10.00 

Chapter Part I~ ANALYTICAL. Chapter Part II— STRUCTURAL. 
L Definitions and Historical Review. XVL Styles of Structures and 
11. Application of the Laws of Equili- ^„„ n^!^J*n'SJTn''li vSn^."?'^^^^^^^ 
brium to Framed Structures. ^^"- ^Members 

III. Roof Trusses. XVIII. Details of Joints and Con- 

IV. Bridge Trusses with Uniform nections. 

Loads. XIX. Plate Girders, 

V. Bridge Trusses with Wheel Loads. XX. The Complete Design of a' 

VI. Conventional Methods of Treating B.oot Truss. 

Train Loads. XXI. The Complete Design of a 

VII. Lateral Truss Systems. ^^„ m^^^i^^^ P^^^f?' • 

VIII. Beams (including Continuous Gir- ^^^^^ ^^fg^^w'S? Br1d?f '^'' ""' ^ 

T^ r.^1^^^^' /• 1 ^- XT ^ XXIII. The Detail Design of a 

IX. Columns (mcluding a New For- Howe Truss 

J^^la,) XXIV. The Detail Design of a 

X. Combined Direct and Bending Draw Bridge. 

Stresses. ^ XXV. Elevated Railway Siruc- 

XI. Suspension Bridges. ' tures. 

XII Draw Bridges XXVI. Timber and Iron Trestles. 

XITT* Cantilever Bridge*? XXVIL Esthetic Bridge Designing. 

^T^r fe? ♦ • A^.t^S -^ XXVIII. Iron and Steel Tall Build- 

XIV. Elastic Arch Bridges. ing Construction. 

XV. Deflection of Framed Structures XXIX Iron and Steel Mill Build- 
and Distribution of Stresses ing Construction. 

Over Redundant Members. 

I A. The Use of Soft Steel in Bridges. 
B. Processes in the Manufacture and in the Inspection of 
Iron and Steel Structures. 
C. American Methods of Erection of Bridges and Struc- 
tures. 



702 APPENDIX K. 

KINDELAN.— The Trackman's Helper. 

Second edition. A practical guide to the section foreman. 
By J. Kindelan, Roadmaster, Mitchell, S. D. Price. .$1.50 

MERRIMAN— BROOKS.—Hand-Book for Surveyors. 

A pocket-book for the classroom and the field, including 
fundamental principles, land surveying, leveling, triangu- 
lation, and topographic surveying, with tables. By Profs. 
Mansfield Merriman and John B. Brooks, C.E. Pocket- 
book form. 12mo, morocco $2.00 

"In issuing this pocket-book the authors undoubtedly meet a 
demand. Works on surveying were plentiful enough, but none 
were In shape for handy use in the field. As arranged, this work 
can be used In the class-rooms of technical schools as well as by 
surveyors in the field. . . . The methods of testing and 
comparing instruments are given more fully than usual in work's 
of this (ih.diTdiC.tQT. —Engineering News. 

MERRIMAN— J ACOBY.— A Text-Book on Roofs and Bridges. 

Designed for classes in technical schools and for the use 
of engineers. By Prof. Mansfield Merriman, of Lehigh 
University, and Prof. Henry S. Jacoby, of Cornell Univer- 
sity. In four parts. 

Part I. — "Stresses in Simple Trusses." Fourth edition, 
revised and enlarged with three new chapters. 8vo, 
cloth ?2.50 

"The author gives the most modern practice In determining 
the stresses due to moving loads, taking actual typical locomotive 
wheel loads, and reproduces the Phoenix Bridge Co.'s diagram 
for tabulating wheel movements. The whole treatment Is concise 
and very clear and elegant." — Railroad Gazette. 

Part II. — "Graphic Statics." Third edition, enlarged. 
With five folding plates. 8vo, cloth $2.50 

"The plan of this book is simple and easily understood ; and 
as the treatment of all problems is graphical, mathematics can 
scarcely be said to enter into its composition. Judging from 
our own correspondence, it is a work for which there is a de- 
cided demand outside of technical schools." — Engineering News. 

Part III. — "Bridge Design." A manual for students and 
for bridge draughtsmen. Second edition. 8vo, cloth. $2.50 

"It Is a most useful handbook for the designer, and the photo- 
graphic reproductions of working drawings in the plates leave 
nothing to be desired on the score of completeness and clear- 
ness. ... It can be read with pleasure and profit by every 
engineer interested in bridge work."— r/^icZiaw Engineering. 

"The general processes treated by Professors Merriman and 
Jacoby have been fairly well written up before, but they cer- 
tainly have not been so extensively elaborated either as to va- 
riety of application or as to faithful and painstaking detail." — 
Engineering Record. 

Part IV. — "Cantilever, Continuous, Draw, Suspension 
and Arch Bridges." March, 1898. 8va, cloth. $2.50 

Contents : Continuous Bridges, Draw Bridges, Cantilever 
Bridges, Suspension Bridges, Three-Hinged Arches, Two-Hinged 
Arches, Arches without Hinges. 



APPENDIX K. 703 

MERRILL, COL. WM. E., U. S. A.— Iron Truss Bridges for 
Railroads. 
The method of calculating strains in trusses, with a care- 
ful comparison of the most prominent trusses, in refer- 
ence to economy in combination, etc. Illustrated. 4to, 
cloth. Fourth edition $5.00 

MORISON. — The Memphis Bridge. 

By George S. Morison. Oblong 4to $10.00 

MERRIMAN. — Elements of Precise Surveying and Geodesy. 
By Mansfield Merriman, professor of C.E. in Lehigh Uni- 
versity. Cloth, 9x6 inches; pp. 261; illustrated $2.50 

NAGLE. — A Field Manual for Railroad Engineers. 

By J. C. Nagle, professor of civil engineering in the A. 
and M. College of Texas. 12mo, morocco $3.00 

Contents : Reconnoissance ; Preliminary Surveys ; Loca- 
tion ; Transition-Curves ; Frogs and Switches ; Construction ; 
Tables. 

OSBORN.-^Osborn's Specifications. 

General specifications for railway bridges. General spec- 
ifications for bridge substructure. Specifications for 
metal highway bridge superstructure. Paper, 8x12 inches. 
Price of each, 25c 

PAINE. — The New Roadmaster's Assistant (1898 Edition). 
By George H. Paine. For twenty-five years "The Road- 
master's Assistant," by Huntington and Latimer, has been 
known throughout the world. Mr. Paine's new book is its 
worthy successor. About 300 engravings, practical and up 
to date in every respect. It is a necessary tool to every 
roadmaster and section foreman. Price , $1.50 

PATTON. — Practical Treatise on Foundations, 

By W. M. Patton, C.E. Twenty-one full-page plates, illua- 
trated. 400 pages. 8vo, cloth $5.00 

Contents : Foundation Beds, Foundations, Building Stone, 
Quarrying, Masonry, Arches, Keystone, Brick, Box Culverts, Ce- 
ment, Mortar, Sand, Stability of Piers, Arch Culverts, Cost of 
Work, Dimensions of Piers, Timber Foundations, Coffer Dams, 
Open Caisson, Soundings, Borings, Frame Trestles, Timber Piers, 
Means of Preserving Timber Joints and Fastenings, Timber 
Piles, Cost of Timber Trestles, Embankment of Earth on Swamps, 
Deep Foundations, The Open Crib, The Pneumatic Caisson, Con- 
struction of Pneumatic Caissons, Caisson Sinking, Combined 
Open Crib and Pneumatic Caisson, All-Iron Piers, Location of 
Piers. The Poetsch Freezing Process, Quicksand, Foundations 
for High Buildings. 

PLYMPTON, PROF. GEO. W.— The Aneroid Barometer; Its 
Construction and Use. 
Compiled from several sources. Fourth jedition. 16mo, 
boards. Illustrated, 50 cents; morocco $1.00 



704 APPENDIX K. 

PAUL, H. — Railway Surveys and Resurveys. 

Pamphlet, 6x9 inches, 13 pages. Price 25c 

REED. — Topographical Drawing and Sketching, including pho- 
tography applied to Surveying. 

Illustrated with plates, colored and plain. By Lieut. Hen- 
ry A. Reed. Fourth edition. 4to, cloth $5.00 

"This is decidedly the best work of its class that we have 
ever met with." — Engineering Hfews. 

"An expert at our elbow says that this is one of the best 
works on the subject in the English or any other language." — 
Engineering cmd Mining Journal. 

"We can commend without reservation Lt. Reed's work." — 
Fra/nklin Institute. 

SEARLES. — Field Engineering. 

A hand-book of the theory and practice of railway survey- 
ing, location and construction, designed for classroom, 
field and office use, and containing a large number of use- 
ful tables, original and selected. By Wm. H. Searles, 
C.E., late professor of geodesy at Ren. Polytechnic Insti- 
tute, Troy. This volume contains many short and unique 
methods of laying out, locating and constructing com- 
pound curves, side tracks and railroad lines generally. 
It is also intended as a text-book for scientific schools. 
Pocket book form. Sixteenth edition. 12mo, morocco. .$3. 00 

"The book is admirable. The internal arrangements and ap- 
pearance are excellent. It is an easy work to refer to and 1b 
plain and clear. There is no useless lumber in it. Every sen- 
tence belongs there." — Prof. Davis, University of MicMgcm. 

SEARLES. — The Railroad Spiral. 

The theory of the compound transition curve reduced to 
practical formulae and rules for application in field work, 
with complete tables of deflections and ordinates for 500 
spirals. By Wm. H. Searles, C.E., author of "Field Engi- 
neering,'* member of Amer. Soc. of C. E. Fifth Edition. 
Pocket-book form. Price $1.50 

"It should have a place in the library of every Civil Engineer 
in the world." — Rmlwa/y Age. 

SHUNK, W. F.— The Field Engineer. 

A handy book of practice in the survey, location and 
track work of railroads, containing a large collection of 
rules and tables, original and selected, applicable to both 
the standard and narrow gauge, and prepared with special 
reference to the wants of the young engineer. Tenth edi- 
tion. Revised and enlarged. 12mo, morocco, tucks . . $2.50 

SIMMS, W. F. — Practical Tunneling. 

Fourth edition, revised and greatly extended. With addi- 
tional chapters illustrating recent practice by D. Kinnear 
Clark. With thirty-six plates and other illustrations. Im- 
perial 8vo, cloth $12.00 



APPENDIX K. 705 

SIMMS, F. W. — A Treatise on the Principles and Practice of 
Leveling. 

Showing its application to purposes of railway engineer- 
ing and the construction of roads, etc. Revised and cor- 
rected, with the addition of Mr. Laws* practical examples 
for setting out railway curves. Illustrated. 8vo, cloth. .$2.50 

SMITH — McMillan. — Manual of Topographical Drawing. 
By Lieut. R. S. Smith, U. S. A., late assistant professor of 
drawing in U. S. Military Academy. Revised and enlarged 
by Chas. McMillan, C.E., professor of civil engineering, 
college of New Jersey. With twelve folding plates, newly 
made (three colored), and new wood engravings. Third 
edition, 8vo, cloth |2.50 

"This is a delightfully simple and practical work." — Scientific 
Ameriacm. 

"The scope of this work and the author's mode of treatment 
rise far beyond the ordinary handbooks of the same class." — London 
Engineering. 

SPALDING. — Hydraulic Cement; Its Properties, Testing and 
Use. 

By Frederick P. Spalding, assistant professor of civil engi- 
neering at Cornell University; member of the American 
Society of Civil Engineers. 12mo, cloth $2.00 

Contents : Hydraulic Lime ; Classifications and Constitution 
of Cement ; The Setting and Hardening of Cement ; Its Sound- 
ness ; Methods of Testing Cement ; Tests for the Strength of 
Mortar ; Tests for Soundness ; Special Tests ; Cement Mortar 
and Concrete ; Appendix, containing Specifications for the Re- 
ception of Cement. 

"For those who wish to acquire a working knowledge of cement 
and its treatment, and for those who desire to have in con- 
venient form a general handbook on this subject, we can recom- 
mend this little book as worthy." — Engineering Record. 

TORREY. — Switch Layouts and Curve Easements. 

By A. Torrey, Prin. Asst. Eng., Michigan Central railroad. 
One hundred and twelve diagrams, showing graphically 
and by figures the leads, offsets and all dimensions for 
laying out switches for frogs of all numbers and for all 
combinations in common use, for both split and stub 
switches. The second part of the manual ("Curve Ease- 
ments") gives exact and easily used instructions and 
data for easing transitions from tangent to curve, or be- 
tween curves of different radii. No similar publication 
has ever before been made. It is a practical and neces- 
sary manual for track men. Price .,.$1.00 

TRATMAN. — Railway Track and Track Work. 

By E. E. Russell Tratman, Assoc. M. Am. Soc. C. E.; asso 

41 Vol. 13 



706 APPENDIX K. 



ciate editor of Engineering News. 400 pages; over 200 

illustrations. Price $3.00 

SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS. 

PART I. — Track: Roadbed — Ballast — Ties — Metal Ties — 
Rails — Joints — Fastenings — Frogs and Switches — Fences — Cross- 
ings — Track Signs — Track Tanks — Mail Cranes and Car bump- 
ers — Section Houses — Sidetracks — Yards and Terminals — Track 
Tools and Supplies. 

PART II. — Track Work : Organization — Tracklaying — Ballast- 
ing — Ditching — Maintenance Work (Surfacing, Lining, Relaying 
Rails and Ties, Policing, etc.) — Grades and Curves — Switch 
Work — Track Inspection — Bridge Department — Snow — Wreck- 
ing and Emergency Work — Records and Accounts. 

TRAUTWINE.—Civil Engineer's Pocketbook. 

Of mensuration, trigonometry, surveying, hydraulics, hy- 
drostatics, instruments and their adjustments, strength of 
materials, masonry, principles of wooden and iron roof 
and bridge trusses, stone bridges and culverts, trestles, 
pillars, suspension bridges, dams, railroads, turnouts, turn- 
ing platforms, water stations, cost of earthwork, founda- 
tions, retaining walls, etc. In addition to which the elu- 
cidation of certain important principles of construction is 
made in a more simple manner than heretofore. By J. C. 
Trautwine, C.E. 12mo, morocco flaps, gilt edges. Seven- 
teenth edition, fiftieth thousand, revised and enlarged, 
with new illustrations. By J. C. Trautwine, Jr., C.E. .$5.00 

**It is the best Civil Engineers' Pocketbook in existence." — 
American Engineer, 

TRAUTWINE. — The Field Practice of Laying Out Circular 
Curves for Railroads. 

By J. C. Trautwine, civil engineer. Thirteenth edition, re- 
vised by J. C. Trautwine, Jr. 12mo, limp morocco $2.50 

"Probably the most complete and perfect treatise on the single 
subject of Railroad Curves that is published in the English lan- 
guage." — Engineering Neivs. 

TRAUTWINE.— A Method of Calculating the Cubic Contents 
of Excavations and Embankments by the Aid of Diagrams. 
Together with directions for estimating the cost of earth- 
work. By John C. Trautwine, C.E. Ninth edition, re- 
vised and enlarged by John C. Trautwine, Jr. 8vo, 
cloth 12.00 

TRAUTWINE.— Cross-Section Sheet. 

To be used with "Trautwine's Excavations." Sheet form. 
Price 25c 

WELLINGTON, A. M.— Piles and Pile Driving. 

Paper, 4%x7 inches, 150 pages. Illustrated fl.OO 



APPENDIX K 1^1 

WELLINGTON. — The Economic Theory of the Location of 
Railways. 
An analysis of the conditions controlling the laying out of 
railways to effect the most judicious expenditure of cap- 
ital. By Arthur M. Wellington. Fifth edition. 8vo. .$5.00 
"Mr. Wellington has done great service to the Railroad pro- 
fession ; more particularly to Engineers, Managers, and Superin- 
tendents, by bringing together in a single volume such a mass 
of valuable matter. It should be in every Railway Library." — 
Railivay Age. 

WELLINGTON. — Excavation and Embanknnents. 

Price $4.00 

WHIPPLE, S., C.E.— An Elementary and Practical Treatise 
on Bridge Building. 

8vo, cloth. Price $4.00 

WRIGHT. — The Designing of Draw Spans. 

Comprising the calculation of stresses, sections required, 
determination of the most efficient details and the design- 
ing of operating machinery. With numerous examples 
from existing bridges. By Charles H. Wright, Edgemoor 
Bridge works. 8vo, cloth. 

Part First. — Part first deals particularly with Plate Girder 
Draws ; gives tables of strength of Shafts, Gears, etc. Considers 
Deflection under various conditions of loading and for varying 
section of girder ; Treats of Friction, Time of Operating and 
Turning, Latching and Wedging arrangements, etc. Much of 
the data given applies equally well to other types of Draw Spans. 

WINSLOW, A. — D. Van Nostrand's Science Series. 

No. 77. "Stadia Surveying." The theory of stadia meas- 
urements. By Arthur Winslow. 8mo 50c 



APPENDIX L. 

BRIDGES AND BUILDINGS RULES, TABLES AND DATA, 

DETAILED RULES GOVERNING BRIDGES 
AND CULVERTS.*^ 

BRIDGES AND CULVERTS. 

Inspection. — The division engineers will make occasional 
examinations of the condition of all important bridges and 
culverts. In an emergency they will, on their own author- 
ity, report such repairs as they may deem necessary for safety, 
to the division superintendent for immediate attention. In 
other cases they will make their reports to the chief engineer, 
who will decide on the amount and character of the work to 
be done. 

Great care must be taken by division engineers and super- 
visors of bridges and buildings, to whom the security of struct- 
ures is intrusted, to make such inspections so thorough and 
the records thereof so complete as to convey definite and pre- 
cise knowledge of the condition of each and every structure at 
the time of the last inspection. 

There will be two regular inspections each year, as follows: 

1. In January, by the supervisor of bridges for each division 
of all truss and large trestle bridges. 

2. In September, by the division engineers and supervisors 
of bridges, of all bridges, culverts, waterways, etc. 

In addition the supervisors of bridges must at all times 
make such other inspections as may be necessary to insure 
safety. 

The September inspection must be made with special refer- 
ence to obtaining information for estimating the cost of re- 
newals and repairs, and for the material required for the 
ensuing year. 

♦Adopted and in force on the Northern Pacific Railway. 

(708) 



APPENDIX L. 709 

The supervisors of bridges will forward the report of these 
inspections, with an impression copy of the same, to the 
division superintendent for approval. Division superintend- 
ents will forward both copies to the division engineer. 

The supervisor of bridges will make such further inspec- 
tions as he finds necessary to keep thoroughly posted as to 
the conditions and safety of all bridges and culverts on his 
division. 

Division superintendents will arrange to obtain the record 
of extreme high water at the time of each flood, or extraordi- 
nary freshet, at all bridges, culverts and openings. 

Section foremen should be instructed to go over their sec- 
tions at such times and take the measurement from top of tie 
to the extreme high-water mark and report such measure- 
ments, giving the number of the bridge or opening, to the 
division superintendent. 

Division superintendents will forward this information to 
the division engineers, who will retain copy and forward the 
information to the oflSce of the chief engineer for record. 

Supervisors of bridges will furnish the division superin- 
tendent monthly reports of all repairs and renewals of bridges 
and culverts executed during the month. These reports will 
be forwarded to the division engineer, who will check same 
against the inspection requirements, for the purpose of insur- 
ing compliance with such requirements. 

At the completion of the work the supervisors of bridges 
will forward a report to the division superintendent, showing 
all changes in the class of structure, details of construction 
and length, height and position of structures; also the cost 
of labor and material expended. This report will be forwarded 
to the division engineer, who, after recording same, will send 
it to the chief engineer for final record. 

Following the September inspection, estimates of the cost 
of repairs, renewals and replacements recommended for the 
ensuing year will be prepared by the division supervisors and 
division engineers, which will be tabulated and forwarded 
through the ofllce of the chief engineer. 

The character and extent of renewals and improvements 
will be determined from this report. Descriptions and esti- 



710 APPENDIX L. 

mates will be given for permanent structures, wherever same 
appear desirable or economical. 

This report will show the cost of necessary repairs recom- 
mended for the ensuing year; the average annual cost of 
such repairs; the total cost of the structure upon which re- 
pairs are recommended, and also the total cost and annual 
interest upon permanent structures when such structures 
are recommended. 

All changes, additions or expensive renewals of bridges, cul- 
verts or other important structures shall be made only upon 
the properly approved plans and estimates of the chief engi- 
neer, who will make contracts for and superintend the work. 

Instruction to Inspectors. — Note-books of inspection must 
be filled out at the structure after a careful examination has 
been made of each of the points itemized in the blanks, using, 
in cases where there are a number of spans in which defects 
are observed, a properly noted column for each span. When 
the spans are all in good condition one column only need be 
used, but the number of spans should be noted. 

Designate the separate spans of a bridge by numbering 
them in the direction of the bridge numbers on the division, 
and the separate bents or piers in same manner, com*- 
mencing with abutment, bank-bent or sill as number one. 
Designate the truss as the right or left, locating points on it 
by numbering the panels in the same direction as the spans 
are numbered. 

When wooden structures are four years old, such members 
as by their position are particularly liable to decay must be 
tested by boring, the holes to be plugged up as soon as the 
inspection is completed. 

When making regular inspections the inspectors will take a 
statement of the results of the last examination relative to 
such structures as required attention at that time, and in re- 
porting on these structures, special notes must be made as 
to whether the repairs and recommendations of the previous 
examinations have been fully carried out or not,and whether 
the work is in accordance with the standard plans. 

Instructions Regarding Inspection Reports. — (Numbers and 
directions in these instructions correspond with numbers and 
abbreviations on report blanks.) 



APPENDIX L. 711 

1. Does waterway require straightening, cleaning out or 
enlarging above or below structure? Does structure afford 
ample waterway? Is rip rap needed to maintain channel or 
protect roadway? 

2. Note line and surface, also condition of rails, joints and 
fastenings on bridge and approaches. See that rails are 
braced on curves where necessary, and that track on ap- 
proaches is firmly bedded, avoiding shock or jolt to train as it 
passes on to bridge. 

3. Note any rotten, split or otherwise defective bridge 
ties, giving number, size and kind. 

4. See if guard rails are in line and bolted or spiked dov/n 
tight. 

5. Note condition of caps and stringers, particularly at 
points where they bear against other members. 

6. Note if plumb and batter posts are crooked, split or de- 
cayed, and if bents stand plumb. 

7. See if trestle towers or bents are properly sway-braced, 
and all braces longitudinal and transverse are drawn up 
tight and have sufficient bolts or spikes to hold them properly. 

8. Note particularly the condition of piles where they enter 
the ground or water. See that they stand properly. 

9. Examine each pier and abutment as to joints, settlement, 
imperfect stones, cracks or other defects; note if work needs 
pointing up, or if cracks have opened since last pointed; 
make such measurements as will locate position of cracks, and 
note on sketch on back of report blank. Condition of rip rap, 
if any. Is rip rap needed to prevent undermining? How 
much? Condition of pedestal stones, and whether bridge seat 
is clean and water drained off. 

10. Note condition of culvert and retaining walls. See if 
they are yielding by settlement or bulging from the pressure 
of the embankment. 

11. Condition of ring, or covering stone, of box or arch 
culverts. 

12. Note condition of paving and rip rap, and that same is 
so placed that it cannot be undermined by washing. 

13. Does pipe drain need head or tail wall to protect em- 
bankment from washing? And does it clear itself of water? 



712 APPENDIX L. 

14. Does timber box need to be replaced with masonry, or 
culvert pipe? If so, give dimensions required to give ample 
waterway, and give height from bottom of stream to rail. 

15. See if bed plates and rollers are clean, and if the latter 
stand so as to move squarely back and forth with the truss. 
See if pedestal takes an even bearing on rollers. Examine 
anchor bolts. 

16. Observe particularly the condition of wall plates where 
bolster rests upon them. Note any appearance of crushing 
or decay. 

17. Note condition of bolsters and corbels. See if holes are 
bored through them where they cover the spaces between 
chord sticks, to prevent the collection of water, and if there 
is any indication of decay where they are in contact with 
chord. 

18. Angle blocks and all cast-iron members such as chord 
boxes, post shoes, etc., must be examined for cracks and for 
any indication of displacement by reason of daps splitting 
or timber crushing. A hole of i/4-inch in diameter, if drilled 
at the end of the crack, will frequently stop its extending 
farther. 

19. Note particularly any appearance of opening of bottom 
chord joints. Wooden bridges over four years old should 
have gauge blocks at all joints in the middle half of the span, 
!^ade by fastening two planed and squared blocks 1x2 inches, 
6 inches long, to the chord sticks with screws, and scribing a 
fine line across both. Any movement of joints should be 
noted, giving location and amount, scribing a new line from 
the old one on the outside block across the inside block. See 
if clamp daps are shearing. 

20. See that all chord and packing bolts are tight. Nuts 
on all bolts through guard rails, ties, stringers and floor 
beams must be secured in place by burring the thread of the 
bolt at two or three places with a center punch or cape chisel. 

21. Note any signs of decay or crushing in packing blocks, 
and see that clamps and keys are in proper condition. 

22. See if gib plates are distorted or crushing into the 
chords; if they are, give their location and dimensions, num- 
ber, size and spacing of rods passing through them. Give 
size of rods over threads. 



APPENDIX L, 713 

23. Note condition of sides and roof of covered bridges, or 
of chord and end post covering. 

24. Notice particularly the connections between stringers 
and floor beams; see that connecting angles are not split, 
either in the angle or through in the line of the rivet holes. 
For wooden stringers, note condition as to soundness and 
bearings. 

25. Notice particularly the connections between floor beams 
and trusses for evidence of imperfect bearing, or splitting 
of connecting angles. If suspended, notice if they are up 
tight against the post feet or free to move. 

26. Test equality of tension in tie bars by springing them. 
Look for any signs of distortion or crookedness in bars of 
end panels of bottom chords. Howe truss rods, counter 
lateral and vibration rods must never be allowed to hang 
loose. They must not be adjusted while a load is on the 
bridge. They should be tightened enough to give close and 
even bearings, but must not be overstrained, as unnecessary 
strains are put on compression members if too much power 
is used in adjusting tension members. See that the center 
line of all tension members is the same as the line of strain. 

27. Examine carefully, especially at the joints. 

28. See if posts, lateral struts and top chords are straight 
and free from twists. On wooden bridges, see if braces are up 
in place, taking a square bearing at ends, and note if any 
warping is evident. Note their condition as to soundness. 

29. Examine all lateral connections, and see that lateral 
tension members are straight. Examine bracing in iron 
trestles. 

30. Make particular examination of all hangers, testing 
each nut to see that it is tight. A streak of white paint drawn 
across nut and bearing will indicate any movement. These 
nuts should be screwed up tight and secured by burring the 
thread of bolt and nut at two or three points with a center 
punch or cape chisel. 

31. Note any pins which indicate the movement of any of 
the members coupling on them, or that have loose nuts. All 
pins and nuts should have a streak of white paint across nut 
and pin end. 



714 APPENDIX L, 

32. All field driven rivets in floor beams and stringer con- 
nections should be lightly sounded to see that they are tight. 
Also lateral connection rivets in riveted trusses, and any 
intersection or other rivets which indicate by rust streaks, 
or otherwise, that there is movement at that point. 

33. Note if there are any members, such as closed columns, 
pedestals, etc., which catch and retain water by reason of not 
having proper drain holes. 

34. Note carefully the line of each truss by the top chord 
and by points on the floor beams equidistant from the center 
of the posts. Also note the camber by the top and bottom 
chords, whether it is true and uniform or irregular. 

35. Look for loose rods, hangers, loose braces, unequal- 
sized timbers and other defects which require adjusting in 
order that each of the different parts may have proper bear- 
ings and carry its proper part of the load. 

36. Note any undue vibration of the structure under live 
load. 

37. Note excessive deflection of the structure under live 
load, seeing if the two trusses have the same deflection. 

38. See if any rust spots are apparent under the paint. 
Note if structure needs repainting. Iron bridge work should 
be scraped and repainted as often as necessary to preserve 
from rusting. 

39. Note such wooden structures as require barrels to add 
to their safety, giving number required. State condition of 
such barrels as may be in position. On all bridges of such 
magnitude as to require a watchman, there should be a foot 
plank between the rails securely fastened to the ties to facil- 
itate crossing the bridge quickly in emergencies, such as fire 
or danger to trains. Note if ladders, either fixed or portable, , 
are required for the safety of the structure or to facilitate 
inspection. 

40. Sec if material, driftwood, weeds, grass or other rubbish 
is properly removed and burned, or otherwise disposed of. 

List of abbreviations for class of structures: 

W. B.— Wooden or timber box cul- P. B.— Pile bridge, 

vert. P. C— Pile culvert. 

S. B.— Stone box culvert. T. B.— Trestle bridge. 

S, A.— Stone arch culvert. H. T. — Howe truss. 

T. P.— Tile culvert pipe. C T.— Combination truss. 

C. P.— Cast culvert pipe. I. T.— Iron truss. 

B. D.— Hlicd drain D. S— Draw span. 

W. C— Wail culvert. P. G.— Plate girder. 



APPENDIX L, 715 

ERECTION OF STEEL BRIDGES. 

General. — Engineers, inspectors and contractors are ex- 
pected to make themselves thoroughly familiar with the 
general and special specifications governing the work. 

All material received must be carefully checked, recorded 
and reported immediately upon receipt of same, in accordance 
with the rules. Shortages should be reported immediately. 
Material received should be checked against complete bill of 
material, and every effort made to avoid delay to the progress 
of the work, by failure to receive material, including false 
work, tools, etc., etc' 

The engineer in charge must cause to be kept an accurate 
record of the cost of the work, including material and labor, 
keeping separately each class of work, such as rigging up, un- 
loading, repairing, raising, fitting, riveting, cleaning, paint- 
ing, framing, bolting, contractors' pay roll, character of plant, 
framing and erecting false work, and removal of same. A 
diary must be kept containing dates of commencing and com- 
pleting different classes of work, and all other general infor- 
mation of value. A record, or copies of all orders, or instruc- 
tions, issued or received during the progress of the work, 
and the daily force account should also be kept. 

The engineer in charge must check all distances and eleva- 
tions on plans, before laying out the work, and will be held 
responsible for any errors that may arise, through neglect on 
the part of himself or assistants, properly to verify and re- 
check, plans, points and elevations, given for the erection of 
the structure. Distances between centers and elevations of 
finished tops of masonry are especially important, and should 
be rechecked as often as may be necessary in order abso- 
lutely to insure against errors. The sum of the heights of 
the component parts forming the structure should be care- 
fully checked against the total finished height, above assumed 
datum, to base of rail. The sum of all detail lengths must also 
be checked, with equal care, against the total length from the 
fixed initial point. 

Insure that the material shall not be injured, nor dangerous- 
ly strained during the operation of loading, unloading or 
handling same. All defects in workmanship or material must 
be remedied as soon as detected. A thorough inspection must 
be made for defects in painting, cleaning, reaming, spots of 



716 APPENDIX L, 

shrivelled oil or paint, chips, burrs, sharp edges and black or 
rusty spots on steel, scale, cinders and scratches, particularly 
in joints and around rivet heads, brush hairs, or other foreign 
matter covered over with paint or oil; all such defects shall 
be remedied immediately, and noted in detail, to provide full 
information, is case of claims for extra compensation. 

Slight bends in members shall not be straightened unless 
strictly necessary, on account of the danger of overstraining 
connections and rivets. Connection plates, if slightly bent or 
twisted, shall be straightened cold; if bent so sharply as to 
require heating, the whole piece thus heated shall be subse- 
quently annealed. All shop rivets, or any piece of member 
thus straightened, shall be properly tested. 

Particular care will be taken to insure free expansion and 
contraction, wherever provided for in plans. Any departure 
in dimensions, amount of camber or otherwise, of material 
received, from plans and specifications, must be noted and 
reported immediately. 

All machine-fitted bolts shall be perfectly tight, and should 
be burred or otherwise checked to prevent nuts from becoming 
loose, and no unfilled rivet or bolt holes should be left in any 
part of the structure. 

Fitting and Chipping. — The material must be assembled in 
accordance with the match marks, and no interchange of 
pieces must be made, unless absolutely necessary in order to 
avoid chipping and fitting, or serious delay. 

Fitting and riveting of connections (especially angles) in 
cases where pieces are short or full, must be done in such a 
manner that the metal is not unduly strained or cracks caused. 

Dishonest or incompetent workmen frequently fill cracks 
with paint, putty, cinders, dirt, oil or filings, for the purpose 
of deception. A close inspection must be made for this. 

Wooden rams or malls must be used in forcing members 
to position, in order to protect metal from injury or shocks. 

Chipping of rivets, angle fianges and edges of plates, must 
be done without breaking out metal. Chipped edges must 
be finished off with a file, and all concave corners must be 
rounded off. Chipping with a sledge will only be permitted 
in exceptional cases, and must be done without leaving frac- 
tured edges. 



APPENDIX L, 717 

Riveting. — In driving rivets the dolly and die should be 
placed directly opposite each other, at right angles to the 
riveted surface, to insure straight driving. Rivets must be 
driven while at an orange heat, and no burnt rivets should 
be used. 

After riveting each rivet must be tapped with a hammer 
to insure that they are tight, and the heads must be well 
formed, concentric with center of rivet, and closely fitted 
against the riveted surface. 

Defective rivets can usually be detected by their color, or 
by sound when tapped with a hammer, and all loose or burnt 
rivets must be immediately cut out and replaced. 

In cutting out rivets be careful to ascertain that other 
rivets in proximity have not been loosened. 

Tightening up, recupping or calking old rivets will not be 
tolerated, except that occasional recupping of shop rivets do 
not form part of important connections, or do not directly 
transmit stresses. 

Countersunk rivets must be inspected after chipping heads, 
and no unnecessary chipping should be permitted. 

Painting. — The specifications under the head of cleaning, 
oiling and painting must be strictly carried out. 

An accurate account should be kept of the quantities and 
proportions used, of pigments, oils and other ingredients, 
and the quantities by weight or fiuid measure, of the resulting 
mixtures, ascertained. A record should be kept of the quan- 
tity of paint applied, of each coat, and its proportion ascer- 
tained to area or weight of material covered. 

Paint should be thoroughly worked in all corners and 
joints, and narrow openings, covering edges and sealing up 
all lines of contact between parts. 

Unless otherwise specified, the ingredients and proportions 
of the mixture, for the three coats, shall be as follows: 

First Coat. — 30 lbs. pure lead to 1 gallon pure boiled lin- 
seed oil, 1-3 pint pure turpentine. 

Second Coat. — 25 lbs. pure lead to 1 gallon pure boiled lin- 
seed oil, ^4 pint pure turpentine, lampblack, quantity not to 
exceed 12 ounces. 

Third Coat. — 15 lbs, dry pigment, Cleveland Ironclad, purple 
band No. 3, to 1 gallon of pure boiled linseed oil. 



718 



APPENDIX L. 



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INDEX. 



Abutment ! 323 

Abutments 127 

Adjusting an Old Line to Meet New Conditions 146 

Angle Bars, Number Kequired for One Mile of Track 627 

Arch, Axis of 328 

Arch Bridges and Concrete Steel Construction 322 

Arch Culverts 322 

Arch, Segmental 328, 331 

Arch, Semi-circular 328, 329 

Arch Sheeting 327 

Ashpits 310 

Axis of Arch 328 

Backing 327 

Ballast 181, 189 

Ballasting 396, 667, 668, 669 

Base plates. Number Required for One Mile of Track 627 

Bolts, Number Required for One Mile Track 627, 680 

'' Number of Per Keg 682 

' ' Track 247 

' ' Weight of Per Thousand 682 

Bolting 421, 664 

Borrowpits 95, 132 

Bridges 24, 268 

Bridges, Detailed Rules Governing 708 

* ^ Maintenance of 519 

Bridge, Stone Arch, Designing of 328 

Bridge Stone Arch, Table of Dimensions of 332 

Bridging Timber 134 

Buildings 299, 489 

^^ Detailed Rules Governing 708 

Burnt Clay Ballast 194 

Buildings, Maintenance of 519 

Bumping Posts 267 

Camp Party 67 

Cattleguards 320 

Cements 335 

Cinder Ballast 198 

Clearing Right of Way 458 

Coaling 293 

(720) 



INDEX, { 721 



Commissary Party 67 

Concrete 333 

Concrete Mixers 338 

Concrete, Proportions for 337 

Concrete Steel Construction 322, 347 

Concrete Steel Construction, Cost of 351 

Construction 90 

* * Accounts 541 

' * Authorities on 693 

* ' Detailed Eules Governing 647 

* * Material Used in 661 

'' Standards of 173 

Controlling Points 177 

Coursing Joint 327 

Crossings 453, 672 

Crossovers 372 

Crown 327 

Culverts 123, 133, 280 

'' Detailed Eules Governing 708 

Culvert, Stone Arch, Designing of 328 

Curves, Elevation of Eails on ^^^. 690 

* ^ Widening Gauge on 689 

Cuts 92, 106, 176 

Depots 302 

^ * Erection of 145 

Development of Eailway 21 

Ditches 180, 433, 671 

Drainage 120, 179, 420 

Draughtsmen 67 

Economy of Wooden Structure as Compared with Stone Arch 

Culvert 323 

Engineer, Assistant 91 

'' Division 90 

Engineers, Locating 47 

Embankments 92, 103, 112, 118, 122, 433 

Estimates— Monthly 130 

Evolution of Eailway 21 

Excavation 92, 106 

Explosives, Use of Ill 

Extrados 327 

Facilities — Effect of on Cost of Operation 588 

Fences 317, 456 

Field Supplies 647 

Fills 100, 176 

Foremen 395 

Frogs 253, 367, 440, 667 

'' —Early Forms of 39 



722 INDEX. 

Fuel Supply 145 

Gauge 174, 671 

Gauges Used in Different Countries 626 

Grade — Surfacing 129 

Gravel Ballast 196 

Hand Cars 419 

Haunch 327 

Heading Joint 327 

Intrados 327 

Joint, Ties 215 

Joints, Introduction 19, 670 

• * Early Forms of 33 

'' Eail 216, 242 

Keystone ...327 

Leveling Party •. 63 

Line, Old, Adjusting to Meet New Conditions 146 

Lining 421 

Location 83 

* ^ Authorities on 693 

'^ Detailed Eules Governing 629 

Locating Party 83 

Locating Eailways 47, 83 

Locomotives, Curves Showing Horse Power of 639 

'' Increase in Weight of— 1880 to 1900 628 

Locomotive, Invention of 24 

Lubricants, Effect of Quality of 563 

Machinery Used in Eeconctruction 153 

Maintenance Accounts 541 

* ' Authorities on 69S 

*' —Cost of 544 

** — Fixed Operating Expenses 574 

'' —Force 388 

'' of Way 386 

'' Eelation of Various Classes to Total Cost of.. 624 

' * — Eules Governing 392 

' ' Things that Affect . .^ 594 

Material — Classification of 131 

Effect of Quality of 559 

Old 491 

' ' Standards of , 173 

Middle Ordinates, Table of 691 

Narrow Gauge Sections 177 

Nutlocks 248 

^^ Number Eequired for One Mile of Track 627 

Overhaul 132 

Operation — Cost of 544, 588 



INDEX. 723 

Operating, Cost of — Percentage Due to Maintenance of Or- 
ganization and the Prevention of the Destruction of the 

Property From Natural Causes 625 

Operating Expenses, Fixed 574 

Openings — Size of 94 

Ordinates Middle, Table of 691 

Piles, Life of Different Kinds of 718 

Piling 134 

Piers 127 

Policing 672 

Preliminary — Survey 58 

Pumps, Capacity of 684 

Water 288 

Rail Braces 249, 667 

^ ^ Fastenings 242 

^ * Expansion Xumber for Eails per Ton 681 

' ' Section • 673 

Rails 226 

' ' Changing 480 

' ^ Creeping 448 

^ ^ Curving 662 

' ^ Dimensions of 673, 674 

' ' Distributing 662 

' ' Early Supports of 28 

' ' Early Forms of 22 

' ' Effect of Quality of 559 

' ' —Elevation of, on Curves 382 

^ ' Expansion of 451, 683 

' ' Filing 482 

' ' Jointing . 483 

^^ Number Required to Lay One Mile of Track 627 

' ' Placing in Track 662 

' ' Tons Used per Mile and Feet 680 

' ' Unloading 481 

Rebuilding, Reasons for 146 

Reconnoissance 47 

Reconstruction — Conducting Transportation 150 

Reconstruction — Curvature 152 

Reconstruction — Distance 152 

Reconstruction — General Explanation 150 

Reconstruction — Gradients 152 

Reconstruction — Maintenance of Equipment 149 

Reconstruction — Maintenance of Way 148 

Reconstruction — Method of Arranging Tracks for Yards and 

Terminals 154 

Reconstruction of Old Line 154 

Reconstruction — Rise and Fall 153 

Reconstruction — Summary 151 



724 Il^DEX. 



Eeports of Other Eoads, Value of When E^constructing 147 

Eesistance, Train 644 

Eetaining Walls 119, 121 

Eight of Way — Clearing 95 

Eing Stone 326 

Eise 326 

Eoadbed 178, 661, 669 

Eoundhouses 309 

Eoutes — Locating 55 

Sand Ballast 199 

Sand Houses 310 

Scales, Track 322 

Scrap 491 

Season's Work 476 

Shimming 454 

Sidings 671 

Signs 453 

Signals 313 

' ' Switch 265 

Side Tracks 144 

Skewback 323 

Slag Ballast 192 

Snow Fences 464 

' ' Plows 469, 474 

' ' Eemoving 463 

Soffit 327 

Span 326 

Spandrel 327 

Spandrel, Dimensions of 331 

Spikes 241 

'' Number Eequired for One Mile Track 627, 681 

Spiking 421, mo 

Splice Bars, Number for One Mile Track 680 

Springer 323 

Spring Line 323 

Stations 489 

'' Coaling 293 

'' —Erection of 145 

Stakes, Engineers ' — Care of 484 

Stock Pens. 307 

' ' Yards 307 

Stone Ballast 190 

Storehouses 309 

String Course 327 

Structures 173 

Supervisors 392, 394 

Supplies, Field 647 

Surfacing 144, 423 



INDEX, «W 

Survey — Preliminary 58 

Surveys, Detailed Eules Governing 647 

Switch Stands 261 

Switches 251, 367, 434, 667, 671 

'' — Earlv Forms of 39 

'' Data for 687, 689 

' ' Ties Required for 685, 686, 688 

Tamping 424, 667 

Tanks, Track 292 

Targets - 265 

Taxes 612 

Terminals, Effect of Cost of 486 

Ties 200, 662, 669 

* ^ Bearing Surface on Ballast. , 692 

' ' Effect of Quality of 561 

' ' Metal 217 

' ' Number of to Rail 387 

^' Number Required for One Mile of Track 627 

' ' Number Required for Switches 685, 686, 688 

* ^ Renewals of 427 

'' Size of 214 

* * Specifications for 672 

^ ^ Spacing 215 

' ' Wood— Life of 203 

* ' Wood — Preservation of 205 

Tie Plates 222, 666 

'^ ^^ Number Required for One Mile of Track 627 

Timber, Bridging 134 

'' Decay of 202 

' ' Life of Different Kinds of 719 

Topographical Party 65 

Tools, Track 402 

Track, Authorities on 693 

' ' Bolting 421 

' ' Constructing 361 

** Construction of — Detailed Rules Governing 661 

' ' Drainage 420 

^ * — Early Method of Constructing 32 

*' Expenses, Relation of Various Items to the Whole. . . . 623 

' * Inspecting 495 

^^ Labor, Relation of Various Items to Each Other 623 

Tracklaying 134 

' ' Machines 137 

Track, Lining 421 

* ^ — Moving During Week 486 

' ' Old— Moving 483 

* * — Moving on Sunday 485 

'' —Policing , 487 



726 INDEX, 

Track — Preparing for Sunday Work . 484 

' ' Scales 322 

* ^ Shimming 454 

* ' Spiking 42] 

* ' Sprinkling 452 

* ' Surfacing 423 

* ^ Tamping 424 

Tracks, Team 312 

Train Eesistance 644 

Transit Party 61 

Tunnels 113, 185 

Turntables 296 

Velocity Grades, Length of 642 

Voussoirs 327 

Water Supply 144 

' ' Supplies 285 

Water Tank 155 

Way, Maintenance of 386 

Wing Wall 327 

Wing Walls, Dimensions of . 331 

Wrecks 505 

Wood for Ties 200 



Kirkman^s Complete Works 



THE SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS 

This great work is of inestimable value to those who look for advancement 
in railway service; also to those who by greater knowledge of railway affairs seek 
to become more useful to their employers. It is a library of Reference and 
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The volumes constituting the series are sold only in complete sets. 

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Motive Power Buii^ding and Repairing Raii^ways 

Engineers' and Firemen's Hand- Operating Trains 

BOOK E1.ECTRICITY APPI.IED TO RAII^ROADS 

Air Brake Locomotive Appi^iances 

Cars Coli^ection of Revenue 

Organization Genera i. Accounts and Cash 

Passenger Traffic and Accounts Safeguarding Expenditures 

Freight Traffic Basis of Raii^way Rates 

THE ROMANCE OF GILBERT HOLMES 

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